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Proto-Tungric: Difference between revisions

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*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final ''*-s'' was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
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! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōs, -ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
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|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þaud'''ōs, -ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōsą, -ōzą'''
| *þaud'''ōsą'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
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Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ahtijō ''f.'' "action" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
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| *gam'''anį'''
| *gam'''anį'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
| *aht'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *aht'''īninz'''
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
| *aht'''īniz'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *aht'''īnǭ'''
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
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| *gam'''anī'''
| *gam'''anī'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
| *aht'''īnī'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| *aht'''īmbiz'''
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
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| *gam'''ani'''
| *gam'''ani'''
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *aht'''īni'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *aht'''īmbaz'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
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'''Note:'''  
'''Note:'''  
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#''*ahtijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending).<!--
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''ōn''-stems====
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
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| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|}
====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *sir'''īnī'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *sir'''īni'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
 
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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| *twen'''as'''
| *twen'''as'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''ōs''', *twen'''azjōs'''
| *twen'''ōz''', *twen'''azjōz'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
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===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
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| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*ijōz, -->*izjōs
| <!--*ijōz, -->*izjōz
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
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| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsōs, *safsazjōs
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
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| *sas, *sazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sōs, *sazjōs
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *þaz
| *izai
| *þai
| *izō
| *þō
| *izōi
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *þan
| *izanz
| *þanz
| *izǭ
| *þǭ
| *izōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þōi
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|}
 
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *izai
| *izō
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
! Accusative
| *izan
| *izanz
| *izǭ
| *izōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izōs, *izazjōs
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izas, *izazjas
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| *istas, *istazjas
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōs, *istazjōs
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istas, *istazjas
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| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōs, *gegazjōs
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegas, *gegazjas
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| *allas, *allazjas
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōs, *allazjōs
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allas, *allazjas
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| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwōs, *hwazjōs
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwas, *hwazjas
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|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent"
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
 
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and '''*-ō''.
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
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**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
Line 2,105: Line 2,200:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}


==Example texts==
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
| Monday ||
|-
| Tuesday ||
|-
| Wednesday ||
|-
| Thursday ||
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|}
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| noon ||
|-
| afternoon ||
|-
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| dusk ||
|-
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
| minute ||
-->
|-
| hour ||
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier || *anþ
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *simfer
|-
| often || *saif
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
|-
| ever || *aiwą
|-
| still, yet || *int
|-
| already || *anþ
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||
-->
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
<!--
|-
| last night ||
-->
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
|-
<!--
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
-->
|}
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| white || *albaz
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
|-
| black || *ōþraz
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
|-
<!--
| orange ||
|-
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''PPT:''' Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
'''Classical Latin cognates:''' Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.
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Allai manniz frijai galīkaihw midi werþō rehtamizuh gaburanai sindi. Þaimaz atgebanō sindi midwissį̄ gahugdizuh, auk anþiraimaz anadanų brōþurlīkanǭ augijaną skulun.-->
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==Other resources==
==Other resources==
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Shariifka
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