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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Proto-Tungric
|name = Proto-Tungric
|nativename = *þauþigą
|nativename = *þaudigą
|pronunciation = ˈθɑuθiɣã
|pronunciation = ˈθɑuðiɣɑ̃
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
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|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor2 = [[Pre-Proto-Tungric]]
<!--
<!--
|iso1 =  
|iso1 =  
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Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.


The Italic base of Proto-Tungric has the following features:
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:
*Lacks merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
*PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*Stress rules similar to Classical Latin, however:
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
**Word-final syllables take stress if the syllable is super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel followed by a coda consonant, a long diphthong, or an overlong vowel.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
**Vowel contraction had not yet taken place, affecting the stress of some words.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final ''*-s'' was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic stress shifts.
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
*Lacks Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
 
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
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! Dative
! Dative
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *akr'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''aiz'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *juk'''aiz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *akr'''ô'''
| *akr'''ō'''
| *juk'''ô'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *juk'''ō'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *þauþō ''f.'' "people"
! !! colspan="2"| *þaudō ''f.'' "people"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *þauþ'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þauþ'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þauþ'''ǭ'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *þauþ'''ōnz'''
| *þaud'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þauþ'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōsą'''
| *þaud'''ōsą'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þauþ'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōbiz'''<!--, *þauþ'''ōiz'''-->
| *þaud'''ōbiz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þauþ'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


Additionally, there is a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns take the ending ''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations have the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by ''-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).


====''i''-stems====
====''i''-stems====
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
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! Dative
! Dative
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mar'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''î'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *mar'''î'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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====''u''-stems====
====''u''-stems====
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
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! Dative
! Dative
| *farþ'''awī'''
| *farþ'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *harn'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''ubiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''û'''
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *harn'''û'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''an''-stems====
====''an''-stems====
Any gender. Masculine and feminine are conjugated the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems are rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gemô ''m.'' "man" <!--|| colspan="2"| *ahtijō ''f.'' "action" -->|| colspan="2"| *namô ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwô ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
<!--| rowspan="2"| *aht'''ijô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īniz'''-->
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *anw'''anō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gem'''anį'''
| *gam'''anį'''
| *gem'''aninz'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
<!--| *aht'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *aht'''īninz'''-->
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gem'''aniz'''
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gem'''anǭ'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
<!--| *aht'''īniz'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *aht'''īnǭ'''-->
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
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|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gem'''anī'''
| *gam'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ambiz'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
<!--| aht'''īnī'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īmbiz'''-->
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| rowspan="2"| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ankw'''ambiz'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gem'''ani'''
| *gam'''ani'''
<!--| *aht'''īni'''-->
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:'''  
'''Note:'''  
#As shown in the case of *''namô'', the expected ''-an-'' in endings may be reduced to ''-n-'' in some nouns. Alternatively, it may be replaced with ''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
<!--#''*ahtijô'' is an example of a ''ijô''-type '' ''n''-stem, where expected ''-ijin-'' is contracted to ''-īn-''. Similarly, in ''jô''-type ''n''-stems, expected ''-jin-'' is contracted to ''-in-''.-->
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#Some ''an''-stems have an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singulae ending).
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular end in *''-ijô'' or ''-jô'' have *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''ōn''-stems====
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|}
====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *ahtijō ''f.'' "action"
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahtij'''ōnį'''
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *ahtij'''ōninz'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *ahtij'''ōnǭ'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahtij'''ōnī'''
| *sir'''īnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ōmbiz'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahtij'''ōni'''
| *sir'''īni'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine or feminine
Masculine or feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *mōþēr ''f.'' "mother" || colspan="2"| *hanþōr ''m.'' "singer"
! !! colspan="2"| *mōþēr ''f.'' "mother" || colspan="2"| *hanþōr ''m.'' "singer"
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! Dative
! Dative
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *mōþ'''ribaz'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ribaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.
====''z''-stems====
====''z''-stems====
Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *amōz ''m.'' "love" !! colspan="2"| *þimfaz ''n.'' "time"
! !! colspan="2"| *amōz ''m.'' "love" !! colspan="2"| *þimfaz ''n.'' "time"
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! Dative
! Dative
| *am'''azī'''
| *am'''azī'''
| rowspan="2"| *am'''azibiz'''
| *am'''azibiz'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| rowspan="2"| *þimb'''izibiz'''
| *þimf'''izibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *am'''azi'''
| *am'''azi'''
| *am'''azibaz'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
<!--
<!--
====''r/n''-stems====
====''r/n''-stems====
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! Dative
! Dative
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *habuþ'''ibiz'''
| *hafud'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *fiþ'''ibaz
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular is *''-s'' (which often leads to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there is usually no suffix. However, there are many nouns that are irregular in these forms.
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
An adjective can be strong or weak. The class of an adjective is determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation is originally from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
 
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="7"| Weak
Line 493: Line 544:
|-
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
|-
|-
Line 516: Line 567:
! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These are a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a ''-j-'' or ''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and are declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected ''-ija-'' becomes ''-ī-'' and ''-ja-'' becomes ''-i-''.
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.


====''i''-stem adjectives====
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These are declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *''-iz'' and ''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular may take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.


The weak forms are identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.


====Consonant-stem adjectives====
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These are declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *''-s'' and *''-'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.


The weak forms are identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Line 578: Line 634:
! Dative
! Dative
| *migī
| *migī
| rowspan="2"| *nōbiz
| *nōbiz
| *þibī
| *þibī
| rowspan="2"| *wōbiz
| *wōbiz
| *sibī
| *sibī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *met, *mit
| *nōbaz
| *þet, *þit
| *þet, *þit
| *wōbaz
| *set, *sit
| *set, *sit
|-
|-
Line 598: Line 656:


'''Notes:'''  
'''Notes:'''  
#When two forms are given, the first is stressed and the second is unstressed.
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives are always strong.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.


====3rd person pronoun====
====3rd person pronoun====
Line 631: Line 689:
! Dative
! Dative
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *izjōz
| *izjōi
| rowspan="2"| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjô
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 677: Line 738:
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
| *safsōz
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsōbaz
| *safsô
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="7"| Weak
Line 695: Line 759:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsô
| *safsǭ
| *safsaniz
| *safsaniz
| *safsô
| *safsǭ
| *safsōniz
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *safsô
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
Line 718: Line 782:
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōnī
| rowspan="2"| *safsōmbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
| *safsōni
| *safsōni
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 762: Line 829:
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
| *sōz
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *sabaz
| *sô
| *sô
| *sô
| *sōbaz
| *sô
| *sō
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 781: Line 851:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *þaz
| *izai
| *þai
| *izō
| *þō
| *izōi
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þōi
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|}
 
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *izai
| *izō
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
! Accusative
| *izan
| *izanz
| *izanz
| *izǭ
| *izǭ
Line 804: Line 920:
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
| *izōz
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izōbiz
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izô
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izô
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 848: Line 967:
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
| *istōz
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istōbiz
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istô
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istô
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 881: Line 1,003:
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gehas, *gegazjas
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gehōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gehas, *gegazjas
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gehabiz
| *gegabiz
| *gehōz
| *gegōi
| rowspan="2"| *gegōbiz
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gehabiz
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gehô
| *gegō
| *gehô
| *gegabaz
| *gehô
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 933: Line 1,058:
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
| *allōz
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allōbiz
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *allabaz
| *allô
| *allô
| *allô
| *allōbaz
| *allô
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronoun====
====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 976: Line 1,105:
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
| *hwōz
| *hwōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwōbiz
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
Line 995: Line 1,159:
! 1
! 1
| *ainaz
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *semēlą
| *semēlą
| *simflaz, *singilaz
| *simflaz, *singilaz
Line 1,007: Line 1,171:
! 3
! 3
| *þrēz
| *þrēz
| *þriþjô
| *þriþjǭ
| *þris
| *þris
| *þriflaz
| *þriflaz
Line 1,013: Line 1,177:
! 4
! 4
| *hwettwōr
| *hwettwōr
| *hwetarþô
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *hwetris
| *hwitris
| *hwetriflaz
| *hwitriflaz
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtô
| *hwinhtǭ
|  
| *hwinhwis
|  
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| *sehs
| *sehs
| *sehstô
| *sehstǭ
|
| *sehsis
|
| *sehsiflaz
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftį
| *siftimô
| *siftimǭ
|  
| *siftis
|  
| *siftiflaz
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtō
| *ahtô
| *ahtōwǭ
|
| *ahtis
|
| *ahtōflaz
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| *nawį
| *nawį
| *naunô
| *naunǭ
|  
| *nawis
|  
| *nawiflaz
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| *tihį
| *tihį
| *tigimô
| *tihimǭ
|  
| *tihis
|  
| *tihiflaz
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
| *ainatigį
| *ainatigį
| *ainatigimô
| *ainatihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,061: Line 1,225:
! 12
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatigį
| *twatigimô
| *twatihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,067: Line 1,231:
! 13
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritigį
| *þritigimô
| *þritihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,073: Line 1,237:
! 14
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtigimô
| *hwettwōrtihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,079: Line 1,243:
! 15
! 15
| *hwinhtigį
| *hwinhtigį
| *hwinhtigimô
| *hwinhtihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,085: Line 1,249:
! 16
! 16
| *sehstigį
| *sehstigį
| *sehstigimô
| *sehstihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,091: Line 1,255:
! 17
! 17
| *siftintigį
| *siftintigį
| *siftintigimô
| *siftintihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,097: Line 1,261:
! 18
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtigimô
| *ahtōtihimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,103: Line 1,267:
! 19
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintigį
| *nawintigimô
| *nawintijimǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,109: Line 1,273:
! 20
! 20
| *wīginþī
| *wīginþī
| *wīginsô
| *wīginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,115: Line 1,279:
! 30
! 30
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginsô
| *þrīginsǭ
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
| *hwatrōginþō
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwatrōginsô
| *hwetrōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,127: Line 1,291:
! 50
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsô
| *hwinhwōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,133: Line 1,297:
! 60
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginsô
| *sehsōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,139: Line 1,303:
! 70
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginsô
| *seftumōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,145: Line 1,309:
! 80
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginsô
| *ahtōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,151: Line 1,315:
! 90
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginsô
| *naunōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,157: Line 1,321:
! 100
! 100
| *hinþą
| *hinþą
| *hinsô
| *hinsǭ
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| *smīgislī
| *smīgillī
| *smīgislidô
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
'''Notes:'''
 
*''*ainaz'' "one" is declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
*''*twō'' "two" is declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 1
| *twō, *twai
| *ainaz
| *twōi
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
|-
! 2
| *twō
| *twō
| *alþeraz
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 3
| *twanz
| *þrēz
| *twōnz
| *þriþjǭ
| *twō
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 4
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *hwettwōr
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
|-
|-
! Dative
! 5
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 6
| colspan="3"| *twô
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 7
*''*þrēz'' "three" is declined similarly to a plural ''i''-stem noun.
| *siftį
*Numbers from 4-99 are undeclined (except for two digit numbers above 20 that end in 1, 2, or 3).
| *siftumǭ
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" is declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgislī'' "thousand" is declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Ordinal numbers are declined as either strong or weak adjectives (as per the endings in the table). Most are weak except for 1st and 2nd.
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
| -ai || -istai || -id || -amaz || -istiz || -ēri
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 9
The past stem is also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel ''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->.
| *nawį
 
| *naunǭ
Strong verbs can be put into classes depending on how the past stem is formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class has a present stem vowel of ''-i-''. It has two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to ''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to ''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class has a present stem vowel of ''-u-'' which changes to ''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class has a present stem vowel of ''-a-'', ''-e-'', or ''-i-'' that becomes ''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class has a present stem vowel ''-a-'' that becomes ''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem has the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem is derived from the present stem by adding ''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem is formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there may also be a vowel change (usually ''-e/i-'' to ''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem is formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*stêō'' "I stand" > ''*steþai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs have irregular presents. This affects the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There are three types of irregularities, and they can co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and may be light or heavy. This affects the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it does in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This does not affect the verb's endings, but affects the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually ''-ō-'' or ''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugate similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There is also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which has the suffix ''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of strong verbs is formed with the suffix ''-þaz'' which, depending on the verb, may become ''-taz'', ''-daz'', or ''-saz''. There may or may not be a connector vowel. If there is one, it is usually ''-a-'' (or ''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akizi'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 10
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *tihį
| *tehumǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 11
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *ainatigį
| *ainatehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|-
|-
! 1S
! 15
| *ak'''jō'''
| *hwinhtigį
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *hwinhtehumǭ
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 16
| *ak'''iz'''
| *sehstigį
| *ak'''izar'''
| *sehstehumǭ
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēz'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3S
! 17
| *ak'''id'''
| *siftintigį
| *ak'''idar'''
| *siftintehumǭ
| *ak'''jād'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk'''id'''
| *ēk'''izēd'''
| *ak'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 18
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| *ahtōtigį
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *ahtōtehumǭ
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 19
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *nawintigį
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *nawintehumǭ
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 20
| *ak'''jand'''
| *twīginþī
| *ak'''jānd'''
| *twīginsimǭ
| *ak'''jēri'''
| *ak'''izēnd'''
| *ak'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
! 30
 
| *þrīginþō
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahizi'' "to do, make"'''
| *þrīginsimǭ
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 40
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 50
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! 1S
! 90
| *dah'''jō'''
| *naunōginþō
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *naunōginsimǭ
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *dēh'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 100
| *dah'''iz'''
| *hinþą
| *dah'''izar'''
| *hinsimǭ
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *dēh'''izēz'''
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 1000
| *dah'''id'''
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *dah'''idar'''
| *smīgillisimǭ
| *dah'''jād'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *dēh'''id'''
| *dēh'''izēd'''
| *dah'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
|}
| *dah'''jamaz'''
'''Notes:'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *dēh'''amaz'''
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! 2P
! Nominative
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *twō, *twai
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *twōi
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *twō
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
|-
| *dah'''id'''
! Accusative
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
|-
|-
! 3P
! Instrumental
| *dah'''jand'''
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *dah'''jānd'''
| *dag'''jēri'''
| *dag'''izēnd'''
| *dag'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
'''Example: *''þragizi'' (class 6) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''izi'''
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! Nominative
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|-
! Accusative
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! 1S
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
|}
| *þrag'''iz'''
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *þrag'''izar'''
 
| *þrag'''āz'''
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
| *þrag'''āzar'''
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
| *þrahs'''istai'''
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
| *þrahs'''izēz'''
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
| *þrag
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! 3S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''id'''
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ād'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *þrahs'''id'''
| *þrahs'''izēd'''
| *þrag'''ô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *þrag'''and'''
| *þrag'''ānd'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''izēnd'''
| *þrag'''anþô'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example: *''hanizi'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *han'''izi'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
Line 1,450: Line 1,578:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *ak'''jō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *ak'''iz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēz'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *han
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *ak'''id'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *han'''ād'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *hehan'''id'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *hegan'''izēd'''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *han'''ô'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *ak'''jand'''
| *han'''ānd'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēnd'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *han'''anþô'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīzi'' "to stuff"'''
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īzi'''
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,517: Line 1,645:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *dah'''jō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''īsǭ'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *dah'''iz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *bebarg'''īstai'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''īsēz'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *barh
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *barh'''ijād'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *bebarh'''īd'''
| *dēh''' '''
| *bebarg'''īsēd'''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *barh'''ijô'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēmaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *barg'''īþiz'''
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *bebarg'''īstiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēþiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *dah'''jand'''
| *barh'''ijānd'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *barg'''ijēri'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *barg'''īzēnd'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijanþô'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''stêsi'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êsi'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,584: Line 1,712:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *stiþ'''izǭ'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *st'''êz'''
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *st'''êāsar'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *stiþ'''izēz'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *st'''êd'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *st'''êād'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *st'''êāþar'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *stiþ'''id'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *stiþ'''izēd'''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *st'''êô'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *st'''êāþiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *st'''ênd'''
| *þrag'''and'''
| *st'''êānd'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēnd'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *st'''ênþô'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Weak verbs====
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
Weak verbs do not change their stem, and they take the following endings in the past indicative:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings:
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
|-
| -bǭ || -bōz || -bōd || -bōmaz || -bōþiz || -bōnd
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
The ''-b-'' is usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depends on the weak verb class.
| *han'''ō'''
 
| *han'''ōr'''
The past subjunctive endings are also added to the present stem. A connector vowel is also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
| *han'''ǭ'''
<!--
| *han'''ār'''
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
| *hehan'''ai'''
<!--
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
#'''Class 1:'''
#*The present stem contains a ''-(i)j-'' and is conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative has the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugate similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
 
The past indicative has a connector vowel ''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle have a connector vowel ''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes follow Siever's law.
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs have the following characteristics:
*The present stem ends in ''-ō-'', which absorbs any following short vowels and contracts with 1S ''-ō-'' to ''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected *''-ōǭ'' contracts to ''-ǫ̂'', while expected *''-ōā-'' becomes ''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle is ''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There are two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass is conjugated with the suffixed vowel ''-ē-'', which absorbs following short vowels (similar to the ''-ō-'' of class 2) but does not contract with long vowels. The past participle has the connector vowel ''-a-''.
 
The second subclass is conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive are conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel ''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle has the connector vowel ''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs do not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation follows that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative has a connector vowel ''-a-'', and the past subjunctive has a connector vowel ''-i-''. The past participle has no connector vowel.
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs are verbs whose present tenses conjugate as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs have weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*minizi'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtizi'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōssaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōsi'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swidizi'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swēssaz'' "accustomed"
*''*imizi'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*sinizi'' "to be allowed", ''*sīsai'' "I am allowed", ''*sinabǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrinizi'' "to be determined", ''*hrīsai'' "I am determined", ''*hrinabǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēsi'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enoigh"
*''*þilizi'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afizi'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōzi'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
The verb "to be" has two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bu/bū-''. They can be treated as two separate verbs that share past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *issi
| colspan="2"| *būizi
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2S
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *han'''iz'''
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *han'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *han
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
! 3S
| colspan="2"| —
| *han'''id'''
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
| *han'''idar'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
|-
! !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' 1 !! ''*būizi'' 2 !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|-
! 1S
|}
| *izą
 
| *būō
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
| *buzą
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *sijǭ
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| *buzǭ
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
| *bebūai
| *issǭ
| *bebūzǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *iz
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūzēz
| *bū
|-
|-
! 3S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *ist
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijēd
| *buzād
| *bebūid
| *issēd
| *bebūzēd
|-
|-
! 1P
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sijēmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūzēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *sijēþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūzēþiz
| *būid
|-
|-
! 3P
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
| *sind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *sijēnd
| *buzānd
| *bebūēri
| *issēnd
| *bebūzēnd
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
 
| *barh'''ijō'''
==Syntax==
| *barh'''ijōr'''
===Constituent order===
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
===Noun phrase===
| *barh'''ijār'''
===Verb phrase===
| *bebarh'''ai'''
===Sentence phrase===
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
===Dependent clauses===
|-
<!-- etc. etc. -->
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *barh
|-
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
|-
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|}


==Example texts==
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *stid'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *st'''ês'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
|-
! 3S
| *st'''êþ'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *st'''êā'''
| *st'''êādar'''
| *steþ''' '''
| *stid'''izē'''
| *st'''êdō'''
|-
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
|-
! 3P
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|}
 
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
|-
|}
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
 
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
<!--
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
<!--
#'''Class 1:'''
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
 
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
 
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *būō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebūai
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *sijēn
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *būindō
|-
|}-->
 
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|}
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
| Monday ||
|-
| Tuesday ||
|-
| Wednesday ||
|-
| Thursday ||
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|}
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| noon ||
|-
| afternoon ||
|-
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| dusk ||
|-
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
| minute ||
-->
|-
| hour ||
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier || *anþ
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *simfer
|-
| often || *saif
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
|-
| ever || *aiwą
|-
| still, yet || *int
|-
| already || *anþ
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||
-->
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
<!--
|-
| last night ||
-->
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
|-
<!--
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
-->
|}
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| white || *albaz
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
|-
| black || *ōþraz
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
|-
<!--
| orange ||
|-
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''PPT:''' Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
'''Classical Latin cognates:''' Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.
<!--
Allai manniz frijai galīkaihw midi werþō rehtamizuh gaburanai sindi. Þaimaz atgebanō sindi midwissį̄ gahugdizuh, auk anþiraimaz anadanų brōþurlīkanǭ augijaną skulun.-->
<!--Opnēs hemones deknotāti jowezikʷe louðeroi parēskʷe gnāskontor, ratijones komskijentijāskʷe partikapes sont, kʷois enter se komkordijās studēōd agontinom est.-->
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
Shariifka
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