Proto-Tungric: Difference between revisions

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|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor2 = [[Pre-Proto-Tungric]]
<!--
<!--
|iso1 =  
|iso1 =  
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Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.


The Italic base of Proto-Tungric had the following features:
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:
*Lacked merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
*PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.
*Stress rules similar to Classical Latin, however:
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
**Vowel contraction had not yet taken place.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final ''*-s'' was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic stress shifts.
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
*Lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
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! Dative
! Dative
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *akr'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''aiz'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *juk'''aiz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *akr'''ô'''
| *akr'''ō'''
| *juk'''ô'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *juk'''ō'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōbiz''', *þaud'''ōiz'''
| *þaud'''ōbiz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns toom the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
 
====''i''-stems====
====''i''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
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! Dative
! Dative
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mar'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''î'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *mar'''î'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *farþ'''awī'''
| *farþ'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *harn'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''ubiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''û'''
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *harn'''û'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gemǭ ''m.'' "man" <!--|| colspan="2"| *ahtijō ''f.'' "action" -->|| colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
<!--| rowspan="2"| *aht'''ijô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īniz'''-->
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *anw'''anō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gem'''anį'''
| *gam'''anį'''
| *gem'''aninz'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
<!--| *aht'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *aht'''īninz'''-->
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gem'''aniz'''
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gem'''anǭ'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
<!--| *aht'''īniz'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *aht'''īnǭ'''-->
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
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|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gem'''anī'''
| *gam'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ambiz'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
<!--| aht'''īnī'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īmbiz'''-->
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| rowspan="2"| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ankw'''ambiz'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gem'''ani'''
| *gam'''ani'''
<!--| *aht'''īni'''-->
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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'''Note:'''  
'''Note:'''  
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
<!--#''*ahtijô'' is an example of a ''ijô''-type '' ''n''-stem, where expected ''-ijin-'' is contracted to ''-īn-''. Similarly, in ''jǭ''-type ''n''-stems, expected ''-jin-'' is contracted to ''-in-''.-->
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending).
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''ōn''-stems====
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|}
====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *ahtijǭ ''f.'' "action"
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahtij'''ōnį'''
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *ahtij'''ōninz'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *ahtij'''ōnǭ'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahtij'''ōnī'''
| *sir'''īnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ōmbiz'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahtij'''ōni'''
| *sir'''īni'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *mōþ'''ribaz'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ribaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *am'''azī'''
| *am'''azī'''
| rowspan="2"| *am'''azibiz'''
| *am'''azibiz'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| rowspan="2"| *þimf'''izibiz'''
| *þimf'''izibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *am'''azi'''
| *am'''azi'''
| *am'''azibaz'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *hafud'''ibiz'''
| *hafud'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *fiþ'''ibaz
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (which often led to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
 
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
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! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="7"| Weak
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! Dative
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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====Consonant-stem adjectives====
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.


The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
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Line 576: Line 634:
! Dative
! Dative
| *migī
| *migī
| rowspan="2"| *nōbiz
| *nōbiz
| *þibī
| *þibī
| rowspan="2"| *wōbiz
| *wōbiz
| *sibī
| *sibī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *met, *mit
| *nōbaz
| *þet, *þit
| *þet, *þit
| *wōbaz
| *set, *sit
| *set, *sit
|-
|-
Line 629: Line 689:
! Dative
! Dative
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *izjōz
| *izjōi
| rowspan="2"| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjô
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 675: Line 738:
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
| *safsōz
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsōbaz
| *safsô
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="7"| Weak
Line 716: Line 782:
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōnī
| rowspan="2"| *safsōmbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
| *safsōni
| *safsōni
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 760: Line 829:
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
| *sōz
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *sabaz
| *sô
| *sô
| *sô
| *sōbaz
| *sô
| *sō
| *sabaz
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *þai
| *þō
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
! Accusative
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þōi
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 802: Line 920:
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
| *izōz
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izōbiz
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izô
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izô
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 846: Line 967:
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
| *istōz
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istōbiz
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istô
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istô
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 888: Line 1,012:
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gegabiz
| *gegabiz
| *gegōz
| *gegōi
| rowspan="2"| *gegōbiz
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gegabiz
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
| *gegô
| *gegô
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegô
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 931: Line 1,058:
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
| *allōz
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allōbiz
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *allabaz
| *allô
| *allô
| *allô
| *allōbaz
| *allô
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronoun====
====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 974: Line 1,105:
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
| *hwōz
| *hwōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwōbiz
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
Line 993: Line 1,159:
! 1
! 1
| *ainaz
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *semēlą
| *semēlą
| *simflaz, *singilaz
| *simflaz, *singilaz
Line 1,011: Line 1,177:
! 4
! 4
| *hwettwōr
| *hwettwōr
| *hwetarþǭ
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *hwetris
| *hwitris
| *hwetriflaz
| *hwitriflaz
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
| *hwinhtǭ
|  
| *hwinhwis
|  
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| *sehs
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
| *sehstǭ
|
| *sehsis
|
| *sehsiflaz
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftį
| *siftimǭ
| *siftimǭ
|  
| *siftis
|  
| *siftiflaz
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
| *ahtōwǭ
|
| *ahtis
|
| *ahtōflaz
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| *nawį
| *nawį
| *naunǭ
| *naunǭ
|  
| *nawis
|  
| *nawiflaz
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| *tihį
| *tihį
| *tihimǭ
| *tihimǭ
|  
| *tihis
|  
| *tihiflaz
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
Line 1,118: Line 1,284:
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
| *hwatrōginþō
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwatrōginsǭ
| *hwetrōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,160: Line 1,326:
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| *smīgislī
| *smīgillī
| *smīgislidǭ
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
'''Notes:'''
 
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 1
| *twō, *twai
| *ainaz
| *twōi
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
| *twō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 2
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
| *twō
| *alþeraz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 3
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *þrēz
| *þriþjǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! 4
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *hwettwōr
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 5
| colspan="3"| *twô
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 6
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined similarly to a plural ''i''-stem noun.
| *sehs
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
| *sehstǭ
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
|-
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
! 7
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending ''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
| *siftį
 
| *siftumǭ
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
| -ai || -istai || -id || -amaz || -istiz || -ēri
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 9
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *nawį
 
| *naunǭ
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that becomame *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*stêō'' "I stand" > ''*steþai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-'' (underlyingly *''-aē-'', as revealed by the past participle)
 
The past participle of strong verbs was formed with the suffix ''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become ''-taz'', ''-daz'', or ''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually ''-a-'' (or ''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akizi'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 10
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *tihį
| *tehumǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 11
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *ainatigį
| *ainatehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|-
|-
! 1S
! 15
| *ak'''jō'''
| *hwinhtigį
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *hwinhtehumǭ
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 16
| *ak'''iz'''
| *sehstigį
| *ak'''izar'''
| *sehstehumǭ
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēz'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3S
! 17
| *ak'''id'''
| *siftintigį
| *ak'''idar'''
| *siftintehumǭ
| *ak'''jād'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk'''id'''
| *ēk'''izēd'''
| *ak'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 18
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| *ahtōtigį
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *ahtōtehumǭ
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 19
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *nawintigį
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *nawintehumǭ
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 20
| *ak'''jand'''
| *twīginþī
| *ak'''jānd'''
| *twīginsimǭ
| *ak'''jēri'''
| *ak'''izēnd'''
| *ak'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
! 30
 
| *þrīginþō
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahizi'' "to do, make"'''
| *þrīginsimǭ
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 40
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|-
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 60
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginsimǭ
|-
|-
! 1S
! 100
| *dah'''jō'''
| *hinþą
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *hinsimǭ
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *dēh'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 1000
| *dah'''iz'''
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *dah'''izar'''
| *smīgillisimǭ
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *dēh'''izēz'''
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
|}
| *dah'''id'''
'''Notes:'''
| *dah'''idar'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
| *dah'''jād'''
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
| *dag'''jādar'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *dēh'''id'''
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
| *dēh'''izēd'''
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
| *dah'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! Nominative
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| *twō, *twai
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *twōi
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| *twō
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! Accusative
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *twanz
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *twōnz
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *twō
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
|-
| *dah'''id'''
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
|-
|-
! 3P
! Instrumental
| *dah'''jand'''
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *dah'''jānd'''
| *dag'''jēri'''
| *dag'''izēnd'''
| *dag'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
'''Example: *''þragizi'' (class 6) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''izi'''
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! Nominative
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! Accusative
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! 1S
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
|}
| *þrag'''iz'''
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *þrag'''izar'''
 
| *þrag'''āz'''
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
| *þrag'''āzar'''
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
| *þrahs'''istai'''
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
| *þrahs'''izēz'''
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
| *þrag
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! 3S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''id'''
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ād'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *þrahs'''id'''
| *þrahs'''izēd'''
| *þrag'''ô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
| *þrag'''and'''
| *þrag'''ānd'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''izēnd'''
| *þrag'''anþô'''
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
 
| *ak'''jō'''
'''Example: *''hanizi'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *ak'''jǭ'''
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| *ak'''jār'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''izi'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2S
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
| *ak'''iz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 3S
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
| *ak'''id'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 1P
|-
| *ak'''jamaz'''
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *ak'''jand'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *dah'''jō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *dah'''iz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēz'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *han
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *han'''ād'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *hehan'''id'''
| *dēh''' '''
| *hegan'''izēd'''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *han'''ô'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *dah'''jand'''
| *han'''ānd'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēnd'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *han'''anþô'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīzi'' "to stuff"'''
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īzi'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,515: Line 1,712:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''īsǭ'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *bebarg'''īstai'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''īsēz'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *barh
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *barh'''ijād'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *bebarh'''īd'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *bebarg'''īsēd'''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *barh'''ijô'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēmaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *barg'''īþiz'''
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *bebarg'''īstiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēþiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *þrag'''and'''
| *barh'''ijānd'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *barg'''ijēri'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *barg'''īzēnd'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijanþô'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''stêsi'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êsi'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,582: Line 1,779:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *han'''ō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *stiþ'''izǭ'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *st'''êz'''
| *han'''iz'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *st'''êāsar'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *stiþ'''izēz'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
| *han
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *st'''êd'''
| *han'''id'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *st'''êād'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *st'''êāþar'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *stiþ'''id'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *stiþ'''izēd'''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *st'''êô'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *han'''idiz'''
| *st'''êāþiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *st'''ênd'''
| *han'''and'''
| *st'''êānd'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēnd'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *st'''ênþô'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Weak verbs====
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they toom the following endings in the past indicative:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
|-
|-
| -bǭ || -bōz || -bōd || -bōmaz || -bōþiz || -bōnd
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
|-
|-
|}
! colspan="2" | Present participle
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the weak verb class.
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
 
|-
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
<!--
|-
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
<!--
|-
#'''Class 1:'''
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
#*The present stem contained a ''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
|-
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
! 1S
-
| *barh'''ijō'''
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
| *barh'''ijōr'''
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
| *barh'''ijār'''
 
| *bebarh'''ai'''
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
 
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*minizi'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtizi'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōssaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōsi'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swidizi'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swēssaz'' "accustomed"
*''*imizi'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*sinizi'' "to be allowed", ''*sīsai'' "I am allowed", ''*sinabǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrinizi'' "to be determined", ''*hrīsai'' "I am determined", ''*hrinabǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēsi'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enoigh"
*''*þilizi'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afizi'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōzi'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bu/bū-''. They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *issi
| colspan="2"| *būizi
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2S
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *barh'''īz'''
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *barh
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
! 3S
| colspan="2"| —
| *barh'''īd'''
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
|-
! !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' 1 !! ''*būizi'' 2 !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *izą
| *st'''êō'''
| *būō
| *st'''êōr'''
| *buzą
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *sijǭ
| *st'''êār'''
| *buzǭ
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *bebūai
| *stid'''izǭ'''
| *issǭ
| *bebūzǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *iz
| *st'''ês'''
| *būiz
| *st'''êsar'''
| *buz
| *st'''êāz'''
| *sijēz
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *buzāz
| *stid'''istai'''
| *bebūistai
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *issēz
| *st'''ê'''
| *bebūzēz
| *bū
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *ist
| *st'''êþ'''
| *būid
| *st'''êþar'''
| *bust
| *st'''êā'''
| *sijēd
| *st'''êādar'''
| *buzād
| *steþ''' '''
| *bebūid
| *stid'''izē'''
| *issēd
| *st'''êdō'''
| *bebūzēd
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *samaz
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *būamaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *buzamaz
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *sijēmaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *buzāmaz
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
|-
! 3P
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|}
 
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
|-
|}
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
 
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
<!--
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
<!--
#'''Class 1:'''
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
 
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
 
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *būō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebūai
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūzēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *istiz
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *bustiz
| *sijēþiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūzēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
| *būid
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *sind
| *sind
| *būind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *buzind
| *sijēnd
| *sijēn
| *buzānd
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *bebūēri
| *issēnd
| *issēn
| *bebūzēnd
| *bebūizēn
|-
| *būindō
|}
|-
 
|}-->
==Syntax==
 
===Constituent order===
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
===Noun phrase===
 
===Verb phrase===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
===Sentence phrase===
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
===Dependent clauses===
| colspan="2"| *immį
<!-- etc. etc. -->
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|}
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
| Monday ||
|-
| Tuesday ||
|-
| Wednesday ||
|-
| Thursday ||
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|}
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| noon ||
|-
| afternoon ||
|-
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| dusk ||
|-
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
| minute ||
-->
|-
| hour ||
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier || *anþ
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *simfer
|-
| often || *saif
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
|-
| ever || *aiwą
|-
| still, yet || *int
|-
| already || *anþ
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||
-->
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
<!--
|-
| last night ||
-->
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
|-
<!--
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
-->
|}
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| white || *albaz
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
|-
| black || *ōþraz
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
|-
<!--
| orange ||
|-
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
 
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
 
'''PPT:''' Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
 
'''Classical Latin cognates:''' Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.
<!--
Allai manniz frijai galīkaihw midi werþō rehtamizuh gaburanai sindi. Þaimaz atgebanō sindi midwissį̄ gahugdizuh, auk anþiraimaz anadanų brōþurlīkanǭ augijaną skulun.-->
<!--Opnēs hemones deknotāti jowezikʷe louðeroi parēskʷe gnāskontor, ratijones komskijentijāskʷe partikapes sont, kʷois enter se komkordijās studēōd agontinom est.-->


==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->

Latest revision as of 02:47, 24 April 2023

Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.

Proto-Tungric
*þaudigą
Pronunciation[ˈθɑuðiɣɑ̃]
Created byShariifka
Indo-European
Early forms

Introduction

Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.

The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:

  • PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.
  • The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
  • PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
    • Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final *-s was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
    • Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *-eje- > *-ē- did take place).
    • Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
  • PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a-stems

Masculine or neuter.

*akraz m. "field" *juką n. "yoke"
Nominative *akraz *akrōz, -ōs *juką *jukō
Vocative *akr
Accusative *akrą *akranz
Genitive *akrī, -as *akrǭ *jukī, -as *jukǭ
Dative *akrōi *akraiz, -abiz *jukōi *jukaiz, -abiz
Instrumental *akrō *akraiz, -abaz *jukō *jukaiz, -abaz

ō-stems

Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).

*þaudō f. "people"
Nominative *þaudō *þaudōz
Vocative
Accusative *þaudǭ *þaudōnz
Genitive *þaudōz *þaudōsą
Dative *þaudōi *þaudōbiz, -ōiz
Instrumental *þaudô *þaudōbaz, -ōiz

Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).

i-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*minþiz f. "mind" *mari n. "sea"
Nominative *minþiz *minþēz *mari *marjō
Vocative
Accusative *minþį *minþinz
Genitive *minþīz *minþijǭ *marīz *marjǭ
Dative *minþī *minþibiz *marī *maribiz
Instrumental *minþī *minþibaz *marī *maribaz

Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.

u-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*farþuz m. "port" *harnu n. "horn"
Nominative *farþuz *farþawiz *harnu *harnuwō
Vocative
Accusative *farþų *farþunz
Genitive *farþauz *farþuwǭ *harnauz *harnuwǭ
Dative *farþawī *farþubiz *harnawī *harnubiz
Instrumental *farþū *farþubaz *harnū *harnubaz

an-stems

Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*gamǭ m. "man" *ardijō m./f. "skilled person" *namǭ n. "name" *ankwǭ n. "fat, grease"
Nominative *gamǭ *gamaniz *ardijǭ *ardīniz *namǭ *namnō *ankwǭ *ankwanō
Vocative
Accusative *gamanį *gamaninz *ardīnį *ardīninz
Genitive *gamaniz *gamanǭ *ardīniz *ardīnǭ *namniz *namnǭ *ankwaniz *ankwanǭ
Dative *gamanī *gamambiz *ardīnī *ardīmbiz *namnī *namnibiz *ankwanī *ankwambiz
Instrumental *gamani *gamambaz *ardīni *ardīmbaz *namni *namnibaz *ankwani *ankwambiz

Note:

  1. As shown in the case of *namǭ, the expected *-an- in endings was reduced to *-n- in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *-in-.
  2. *ardijǭ is an example of a heavy j-suffixed an-stem, where expected **-ijan/ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed an-stems, expected **-jan/jin- was contracted to *-in-.
  3. Some an-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter r/n-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *-ar.

ōn-stems

Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).

*fihtijǭ f. "the act of combing"
Nominative *fihtijǭ *fihtijōniz
Vocative
Accusative *fihtijōnį *fihtijōninz
Genitive *fihtijōniz *fihtijōnǭ
Dative *fihtijōnī *fihtijōmbiz
Instrumental *fihtijōni *fihtijōmbaz

īn-stems

Feminine.

*sirį̄ f. "sequence, week"
Nominative *sirį̄ *sirīniz
Vocative
Accusative *sirīnį *sirīninz
Genitive *sirīniz *sirīnǭ
Dative *sirīnī *sirīmbiz
Instrumental *sirīni *sirīmbaz

r-stems

Masculine or feminine.

*mōþēr f. "mother" *hanþōr m. "singer"
Nominative *mōþēr *mōþriz *hanþōr *hanþriz
Vocative
Accusative *mōþrį *mōþrinz *hanþrį *hanþrinz
Genitive *mōþriz *mōþrǭ *hanþriz *hanþrǭ
Dative *mōþrī *mōþribiz *hanþrī *hanþribiz
Instrumental *mōþri *mōþribaz *hanþri *hanþribaz

Note: The nominative singular ended in either *-ēr or *-ōr. Otherwise, the vowel *-ē- or *-ō- was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *-e- or *-a- respectively.

z-stems

Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.

*amōz m. "love" *þimfaz n. "time"
Nominative *amōz *amaziz *þimfaz *þimfizō
Vocative
Accusative *amazį *amazinz
Genitive *amaziz *amazǭ *þimfiziz *þimfizǭ
Dative *amazī *amazibiz *þimfizī *þimfizibiz
Instrumental *amazi *amazibaz *þimfizi *þimfizibaz

Consonant stems

*feþs m. "foot" *hafud n. "head"
Nominative *feþs *fiþiz *hafud *hafudō
Vocative
Accusative *fiþį *fiþinz
Genitive *fiþiz *feþǭ *hafudiz *hafudǭ
Dative *fiþī *fiþibiz *hafudī *hafudibiz
Instrumental *fiþi *fiþibaz *hafudi *hafudibaz

Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.

Adjectives

Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.

a/ō-stem adjectives

*twenaz "good"
Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative/
Vocative 		*twenaz *twenai *twenō *twenōi *tweną, -at *twenō
Accusative *twenan *twenanz *twenǭ *twenōnz
Genitive *twenas *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą *twenōz, *twenazjōz *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą *twenas, *twenazjas *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą
Dative *twenammai *twenabiz *twenōz *twenōbiz *twenammai *twenabiz
Instrumental *twenô *twenabaz *twenô *twenōbaz *twenô *twenabaz
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative/
Vocative 		*twenǭ *twenaniz *twenǭ *twenōniz *twenǭ *twenanō
Accusative *twenanį *twenaninz *twenōnį *twenōniz
Genitive *twenaniz *twenanǭ *twenōniz *twenōnǭ *twenaniz *twenanǭ
Dative *twenanī *twenambiz *twenōnī *twenōmbiz *twenanī *twenambiz
Instrumental *twenani *twenambaz *twenōni *twenōmbaz *twenani *twenambaz

ja/jō-stem adjectives

These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **-ija- became *-ī- and **-ja- became *-i-.

i-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-iz and *-į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.

The weak forms were identical to those of ja/jō-stems.

Consonant-stem adjectives

These were declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *-s/z and *— respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.

The weak forms were identical to those of a/ō-stems.

Pronouns

First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns

First person Second person Reflexive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *ekō, *ikō *nōs, *nōz *þū *wōs, *wōz —
Accusative *mē *þē *sē
Genitive *mīz *nasterą *þīz *wasterą *sīz
Dative *migī *nōbiz *þibī *wōbiz *sibī
Instrumental *met, *mit *nōbaz *þet, *þit *wōbaz *set, *sit
Possessive adj. *mijaz *nasteraz *þawaz *wasteraz *sawaz

Notes:

  1. When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
  2. Possessive adjectives were always strong.

3rd person pronoun

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *iz *ijai *ijō *ijōi *it *ijō
Accusative *in *ijanz *ijǭ *ijōnz
Genitive *izjas *izjōsą *izjōz *izjōsą *izjas *izjōsą
Dative *immai *izjaiz, *izjabiz *izjōi *izjōiz, *izjōbiz *immai *izjaiz, izjabiz
Instrumental *izjō *izjaiz, *izjabaz *izjô *izjōiz, *izjōbiz *izjō *izjaiz, *izjabaz

Reflexive/Intensive pronoun

Strong
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsaz *safsai *safsō *safsōi *safsą, *safsat *safsō
Accusative *safsan *safsanz *safsǭ *safsōnz
Genitive *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsōz, *safsazjōz *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą *safsas, *safsazjas *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
Dative *safsammai *safsabiz *safsōi *safsōbiz *safsammai *safsabiz
Instrumental *safsō *safsabaz *safsô *safsōbaz *safsō *safsabaz
Weak
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *safsǭ *safsaniz *safsǭ *safsōniz *safsǭ *safsanō
Accusative *safsanį *safsaninz *safsōnį *safsōniz
Genitive *safsaniz *safsanǭ *safsōniz *safsōnǭ *safsaniz *safsanǭ
Dative *safsanī *safsambiz *safsōnī *safsōmbiz *safsanī *safsambiz
Instrumental *safsani *safsambaz *safsōni *safsōmbaz *safsani *safsambaz

Neutral demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *saz *sai *sō *sōi *sat *sō
Accusative *san *sanz *sǭ *sōnz
Genitive *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sōz, *sazjōz *sōsą, *sazjōsą *sas, *sazjas *sōsą, *sazjōsą
Dative *sammai *sabiz *sōi *sōbiz *sammai *sabiz
Instrumental *sō *sabaz *sô *sōbaz *sō *sabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *þaz *þai *þō *þōi *þat *þō
Accusative *þan *þanz *þǭ *þōnz
Genitive *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þōz, *þazjōz *þōsą, *þazjōsą *þas, *þazjas *þōsą, *þazjōsą
Dative *þammai *þabiz *þōi *þōbiz *þammai *þabiz
Instrumental *þō *þabaz *þô *þōbaz *þō *þabaz


Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *izaz *izai *izō *izōi *izat *izō
Accusative *izan *izanz *izǭ *izōnz
Genitive *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izōz, *izazjōz *izōsą, *izazjōsą *izas, *izazjas *izōsą, *izazjōsą
Dative *izammai *izabiz *izōi *izōbiz *izammai *izabiz
Instrumental *izō *izabaz *izô *izōbaz *izō *izabaz

Near demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *istaz *istai *istō *istōi *istat *istō
Accusative *istan *istanz *istǭ *istōnz
Genitive *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istōz, *istazjōz *istōsą, *istazjōsą *istas, *istazjas *istōsą, *istazjōsą
Dative *istammai *istabiz *istōi *istōbiz *istammai *istabiz
Instrumental *istō *istabaz *istô *istōbaz *istō *istabaz
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *gehaz *gehai *gehō *gehōi *gehat *gehō
Accusative *gehan *gehanz *gehǭ *gehōnz
Genitive *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegōz, *gegazjōz *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą *gegas, *gegazjas *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
Dative *gegammai *gegabiz *gegōi *gegōbiz *gegammai *gegabiz
Instrumental *gegō *gegabaz *gegô *gegōbaz *gegō *gegabaz

Far demonstrative

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *allaz *allai *allō *allōi *allat *allō
Accusative *allan *allanz *allǭ *allōnz
Genitive *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allōz, *allazjōz *allōsą, *allazjōsą *allas, *allazjas *allōsą, *allazjōsą
Dative *allammai *allabiz *allōi *allōbiz *allammai *allabiz
Instrumental *allō *allabaz *allô *allōbaz *allō *allabaz

Interrogative pronouns

  • *hwai "what, who"
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative *hwai *hwēz *hwōi *hwēz *hwat *hwō
Accusative *hwan *hwanz *hwǭ *hwōnz
Genitive *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwōz, *hwazjōz *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą *hwas, *hwazjas *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
Dative *hwammai *hwabiz *hwōi *hwōbiz *hwammai *hwabiz
Instrumental *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz *hwô, *hwī *hwōbaz *hwō, *hwī *hwabaz
  • *hwaþeraz "which, what (of two)"

Other pronouns

Adverbs

Derived manner adverbs

The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.

Numerals

# Cardinal Ordinal
1 *ainaz *frīsimaz, *framaz
2 *twō *alþeraz
3 *þrēz *þriþjǭ
4 *hwettwōr *hwadurþǭ
5 *hwinhw *hwinhtǭ
6 *sehs *sehstǭ
7 *siftį *siftumǭ
8 *ahtō *ahtōwǭ
9 *nawį *naunǭ
10 *tihį *tehumǭ
11 *ainatigį *ainatehumǭ
12 *twatigį *twatehumǭ
13 *þritigį *þritehumǭ
14 *hwettwōrtigį *hwettwōrtehumǭ
15 *hwinhtigį *hwinhtehumǭ
16 *sehstigį *sehstehumǭ
17 *siftintigį *siftintehumǭ
18 *ahtōtigį *ahtōtehumǭ
19 *nawintigį *nawintehumǭ
20 *twīginþī *twīginsimǭ
30 *þrīginþō *þrīginsimǭ
40 *hwetrōginþō *hwetrōginsimǭ
50 *hwinhwōginþō *hwinhwōginsimǭ
60 *sehsōginþō *sehsōginsimǭ
70 *seftumōginþō *seftumōginsimǭ
80 *ahtōginþō *ahtōginsimǭ
90 *naunōginþō *naunōginsimǭ
100 *hinþą *hinsimǭ
1000 *smīgillī *smīgillisimǭ

Notes:

  • *ainaz "one" was declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
  • *twō "two" was declined as below:
Declension of *twō "two" (pl.)
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *twō, *twai *twōi *twō
Accusative *twanz *twōnz *twō
Genitive *twōsą
Dative *twōbiz
Instrumental *twōbaz
  • *þrēz "three" was declined as below:
Declension of *þrēz "three" (pl.)
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *þrēz *þrijō
Accusative *þrinz
Genitive *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
Dative *þribiz, *þrēbiz
Instrumental *þribaz, *þrēbaz
  • Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
  • *hinþą "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
  • *smīgillī "thousand" was declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
  • Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *-ǭ) except for 1st and 2nd.
  • The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
    • *ainas, *sims "once"
    • *twis "twice"
    • *þris "thrice"
    • *hwadurs "four times"
  • The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed:
    • *simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz "single"
    • *twiflaz, *twiflegz "double"
    • *þriflaz, *þriflegz "triple"
    • *hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz "quadruple"
  • The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
    • *sem/sim- "uni-, mono-, one, once"
    • *twi- "bi-, di-, two, twice"
    • *þri- "tri-, three, thrice"
    • *hwadur- "quadri-, tetra-, four"
    • *sēmi- "semi-, half"
  • The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
    • *ambō (declined as *twō) "both"
    • *twiznaz "pair"
    • *þriznaz "set of three"
    • *hwadurznaz "set of four"

Verbs

Strong verbs

Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-ai *-istai *- *-amaz *-istiz *-ēri

The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).

Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:

  1. Class 1: This class had a present stem vowel of *-i-. It had two subclasses:
    a. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
    b. The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *-ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
  2. Class 2: This class had a present stem vowel of *-u- which changed to *-au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
  3. Class 3: This class had a present stem vowel *-a-, *-e-, or *-i- that became *-ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
  4. Class 4: This class had a present stem vowel *-a- that became *-ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
  5. Class 5: The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
  6. Class 6: The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *-s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
  7. Class 7: The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *-e/i- to *-a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
  8. Irregular: The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"

Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:

  1. A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
  2. An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
  3. A vowel suffix (usually *-ō- or *-ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb *stêsi which had the suffix *-ê-.

The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *-þaz which, depending on the environment, could become *-taz, *-daz, or *-saz. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *-a- (or *-i- in the case of j-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.

The infinitive was formed with the suffix *-mį added to the present stem (including any irregularities). j-presents used a connector vowel of *-i- (light) or *-ī- (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *-a- was used.

Example (class 3): *akamį "to do, act"

Infinitive *akamį
Present participle *akinþs
Present participle *ahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *akjō *akjōr *akjǭ *akjār *ēkai *ēkizǭ
2S *akiz *akizar *akjāz *akjāzar *ēkistai *ēkizēs *ak
3S *akid *akidar *akjā *akjādar *ēk *ēkizē *akidō
1P *akjamaz *akiminai *akjāmaz *akjāminai *ēkamaz *ēkizēmaz
2P *akidiz *akjādiz *ēkistiz *ēkizēþiz *akid
3P *akjand *akjān *ēkēri *ēkizēn *akjandō

Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahimį "to do, make"

Infinitive *dahimį
Present participle *daginþs
Present participle *dahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *dahjō *dahjōr *dahjǭ *dahjār *dēhai *dēgizǭ
2S *dahiz *dahizar *dahjāz *dagjāzar *dēgistai *dēgizēs *dah
3S *dahid *dahidar *dahjā *dagjādar *dēh *dēgizē *dahidō
1P *dahjamaz *dagiminai *dagjāmaz *dagjāminai *dēhamaz *dēgizēmaz
2P *dahidiz *dagjādiz *dēgistiz *dēgizēþiz *dahid
3P *dahjand *dahjān *dēgēri *dagizēn *dagjandō

Example: *þragamį (class 6) "to drag"

Infinitive *þragamį
Present participle *þraginþs
Present participle *þrahtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *þragō *þragōr *þragǭ *þragār *þrahsai *þrahsizǭ
2S *þragiz *þragizar *þragāz *þragāzar *þrahsistai *þrahsizēs *þrag
3S *þragid *þragidar *þragā *þragādar *þrahs *þrahsizē *þragidō
1P *þragamaz *þragiminai *þragāmaz *þragāminai *þrahsamaz *þrahsizēmaz
2P *þragidiz *þragādiz *þrahsistiz *þrahsizēþiz *þragid
3P *þragand *þragān *þrahsēri *þrahsizēn *þragandō

Example: *hanamį (class 7) "to sing"

Infinitive *hanamį
Present participle *haninþs
Present participle *hanþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *hanō *hanōr *hanǭ *hanār *hehanai *heganizǭ
2S *haniz *hanizar *hanāz *hanāzar *heganistai *heganizēs *han
3S *hanid *hanidar *hanā *hanādar *hehan *heganizē *hanidō
1P *hanamaz *haniminai *hanāmaz *hanāminai *heganamaz *heganizēmaz
2P *hanidiz *hanādiz *heganistiz *heganizēþiz *hanid
3P *hanand *hanān *heganēri *heganizēn *hanandō

Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīmį "to stuff"

Infinitive *bargīmį
Present participle *bargīnþs
Present participle *barhtaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *barhijō *barhijōr *barhijǭ *barhijār *bebarhai *bebargizǭ
2S *barhīz *bargīzar *barhijāz *bargijāzar *bebargistai *bebargizēs *barh
3S *barhīd *bargīdar *barhijā *bargijādar *bebarh *bebargizē *barhīdō
1P *bargijamaz *bargīminai *bargijāmaz *bargijāminai *bebarhamaz *bebargizēmaz
2P *bargīdiz *bargijādiz *bebargistiz *bebargizēþiz *bargīþ
3P *barhijand *barhijān *bebargēri *bebargizēn *bargijandō

Example: *stêmį (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"

Infinitive *stêmį
Present participle *stênþs
Present participle *staþaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
Active Passive Active Passive Active Active Active
1S *stêō *stêōr *stêǭ *stêār *steþai *stidizǭ
2S *stês *stêsar *stêāz *stêāzar *stidistai *stidizēs *stê
3S *stêþ *stêþar *stêā *stêādar *steþ *stidizē *stêdō
1P *stêmaz *stêminai *stêāmaz *stêāminai *steþamaz *stidizēmaz
2P *stêþiz *stêādiz *stidistiz *stidizēþiz *stêd
3P *stênþ *stêān *stedēri *stidizēn *stêndō

Weak verbs

Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:

1S 2S 3S 1P 2P 3P
*-bǭ *-bōs *-bō *-bōmaz *-bōþiz *-bōn

The *-b- was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.

The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.

Class 1

Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *-i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.

Class 2

Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:

  • The present stem ended in *-ō-, which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *-ō- to *-ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected **-ōǭ contracted to *-ǫ̂, while expected **-ōā- became *-ōē-.
  • The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *-ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3

There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.

The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *-ē-, which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *-ō- of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *-ē- suffix and instead had the connector vowel *-a-.

The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *-ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *-i-.

Class 4

Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-j-stem strong verbs.

The past indicative had a connector vowel *-a-, and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *-i-. The past participle had no connector vowel.

Preterite-present verbs

Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.

For example:

  • *menamį "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
  • *ōtamį "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōsaz "hated"
  • *(ga)knōmį "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
  • *(ga)swedamį "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swessaz "accustomed"
  • *emamį "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
  • *simį "to be allowed", *sisai "I am allowed", *sibǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
  • *hrimį "to be determined", *hrisai "I am determined", *hribǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
  • *(ga)flēmį "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enough"
  • *þelamį "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
  • *afamį "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"

The verb "to be"

The verb "to be" had two stems *(i)s- and *beu/bus-. They were in fact two verbs, *immį "to be" and *biumį "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).

Infinitive *immį *biumį
Present participle *beunþs
Past participle *beudaz
Present Past Imperative
Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive
*immį *biumį 1 *biumį 2 *immį *biumį *biumį *immį *biumį
1S *izą *bewō *buzą *sijǭ *buzǭ *bebewai *issǭ *bebeuzǭ
2S *iz *beuz *buz *sijēz *buzāz *bebeustai *issēz *bebeuzēz *beu
3S *ist *beud *bust *sijē *buzā *bebeu *issē *bebeuzē *beudō
1P *samaz *beumaz *buzamaz *sīmaz *buzāmaz *bebeumaz *issēmaz *bebeuzēmaz
2P *istiz *beudiz *bustiz *sīþiz *buzāþiz *bebiustiz *issēþiz *bebeuzēþiz *beud
3P *sind *beund *buzind *sīn *buzān *bebewēri *issēn *bebeuzēn *beundō

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - *þimfaz

Seasons - *jōras þimfizō
English Proto-Tungric
spring *wesar (*wesn-; n., r/n-stem)
summer *aisōþs (f., cons.-stem)
fall *missiz (f., i-stem)
winter *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; f., cons.-stem)
Parts of the day - *tē₂wiz farþēz
English Proto-Tungric
day *teuz (m., u-stem1)
dawn *ausōz (f., z-stem)
morning *mōdūraz (m., a-stem)
evening *wesperaz (m., a-stem)
night *nahts (f., cons.-stem)

Notes:

1 Expected **-ea- was coalesced to *-ē₂- (e.g. nominative plural was *tē₂wiz rather than *teawiz).

Units of time - *þimfiziz mēþēz
English Proto-Tungric
hour
day *teuz (m., u-stem, irregular)
week *sirį̄ (f., īn-stem)
month *mēns (*mēns-, m., cons.-stem)
season *þimfaz (n., z-stem)
year *aþnaz (m., a-stem); *jōraz (m., a-stem)
Time adverbs - *þimfiziz werdō
English Proto-Tungric
now *nu, *nū
then *þan
recently, a short time ago
earlier *anþ
soon, shortly *mahs
later
always *simfer
often *saif
sometimes
rarely
never *ne aiwą
ever *aiwą
still, yet *int
already *anþ
yesterday *gizi; *gester-
tomorrow *hrōz

Colours - *helaziz

Colours - *helaziz
English Proto-Tungric
white *albaz
grey *hasnaz
black *ōþraz
red *raudaz, *rausaz
brown *patjaz, *duswaz
yellow *gelwaz, *blāwaz
green *wīsidaz
blue *hilizijaz

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri.

Translation: All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.

PPT: Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.

Classical Latin cognates: Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.

Other resources

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