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====Comparative==== | ====Comparative==== | ||
The positive comparative is formed in two ways: | The positive comparative is formed in two ways: | ||
*The suffix ''-er'' | *The suffix ''-er''. | ||
*Preceding the adjective with the word ''maice'' "more" | *Preceding the adjective with the word ''maice'' "more" or ''pluce'' "more". | ||
The decision of which method to use primarily depends on the length of the adjective. | The decision of which method to use primarily depends on the length of the adjective. | ||
The following adjectives have irregular comparatives: | The following adjectives have irregular comparatives: | ||
*''bone'' "good" > '' | *''bone'' /boʊn/ "good" > ''milder'' /ˈmaɪldər/ "better" | ||
*''malvatch'' "bad" > ''pire'' "worse" | *''malvatch'' /ˈmælvətʃ/ "bad" > ''pire'' /ˈpaɪər/ "worse" | ||
*''moult'' "much, many" > '' | *''moult'' /mɔʊlt/ "much, many" > ''maire'' /mɛr/ "more" or ''pluce'' /pluːs/ "more" | ||
*''pawk'' "little, few" > '' | *''pawk'' /pɔːk/ "little, few" > ''mainder'' /ˈmeɪndər/ "less, fewer" | ||
The negative comparative is formed by preceding the adjective with the word ''mains'' " | The negative comparative is formed by preceding the adjective with the word ''mains'' "less". | ||
====Superlative==== | ====Superlative==== | ||
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The following adjectives have irregular comparatives: | The following adjectives have irregular comparatives: | ||
*''bone'' "good" > ''ottem'' "best" | *''bone'' "good" > ''ottem'' /ˈɒtɪm/ "best" | ||
*''malvatch'' "bad" > ''pessem'' "worse" | *''malvatch'' "bad" > ''pessem'' /ˈpɛsɪm/ "worse" | ||
*''moult'' "much, many" > ''maxem'' "most" | *''moult'' "much, many" > ''maxem'' /ˈmæksɪm/ "most" | ||
*''pawk'' "little, few" > ''mainem'' "least, fewest" | *''pawk'' "little, few" > ''mainem'' /ˈmeɪnɪm/ "least, fewest" | ||
The negative superlative is formed by preceding the adjective with the word ''mainem'' "least". | The negative superlative is formed by preceding the adjective with the word ''mainem'' "least". | ||
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Some adjectives form irregular adverbs. For example: | Some adjectives form irregular adverbs. For example: | ||
*''bone'' "good" > ''bean'' "well" | *''bone'' "good" > ''bean'' /biːn/ "well" | ||
*''malvatch'' "bad" > ''male'' "badly" | *''malvatch'' "bad" > ''male'' /meɪl/ "badly" | ||
*''moult'' "much, many" > ''moult'' "much" | *''moult'' "much, many" > ''moult'' "much" | ||
*''pawk'' "little, few" > ''pawk'' "little" | *''pawk'' "little, few" > ''pawk'' "little" | ||
====Comparative and superlative==== | ====Comparative and superlative==== | ||
The comparative and superlative of adverbs are | The comparative and superlative of adverbs derived from adjectives are identical to those of their corresponding adjectives. | ||
The following adverbs have irregular comparatives: | |||
*''bean'' "well" > ''miles'' /maɪlz/ "better" | |||
*''male'' "badly" > ''pice'' /paɪs/ "worse" | |||
*''moult'' "much" > ''maice'' /meɪs/ "more" or ''pluce'' "more" | |||
*''pawk'' "little" > ''mains'' /meɪnz/ "less" | |||
===Articles=== | ===Articles=== | ||
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*'''Definite article:''' ''le'' /lə, (stressed) liː/ | *'''Definite article:''' ''le'' /lə, (stressed) liː/ | ||
*'''Indefinite article (only in the singular):''' | *'''Indefinite article (only in the singular):''' | ||
*Before consonants: ''a'' /ə/ | *Before consonants: ''a'' /ə, (stressed) ʌ/ | ||
*Before vowels: ''an'' /ən/ | *Before vowels: ''an'' /ən, (stressed) ʌn/ | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 0 | ! 0 | ||
| null || /nʊl/ || nullem || / | | null; zero || /nʊl/; /ˈziːroʊ/ || nullem; zeroem || /ˈnʊlɪm/; /ˈziːroʊm/ || – || – | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
| set || /sɛt/ || settem || / | | set || /sɛt/ || settem || /ˈsɛtɪm/ ||settem || /ˈsɛtɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 8 | ! 8 | ||
| aught || /ɔːt/ || aughtem || / | | aught || /ɔːt/ || aughtem || /ˈɔːtɪm/ || aughtem || /ˈɔːtɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| nove || /noʊv/ || novem || / | | nove || /noʊv/ || novem || /ˈnoʊvɪm/ || novem || /ˈnoʊvɔm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 10 | ! 10 | ||
| deach || /diːtʃ/ || deachem || / | | deach || /diːtʃ/ || deachem || /ˈdiːtʃɪm/ || deachem || /ˈdiːtʃɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 11 | ! 11 | ||
| onge || /ɒndʒ/ || ongem || / | | onge || /ɒndʒ/ || ongem || /ˈɒndʒɪm/ ||ongem || /ˈɒndʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 12 | ! 12 | ||
| dodge || / | | dodge || /dɒdʒ/ || dodgem || /ˈdɒdʒɪm/ ||dodgem || /ˈdɒdʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 13 | ! 13 | ||
| tredge || /trɛdʒ/ || tredgem || / | | tredge || /trɛdʒ/ || tredgem || /ˈtrɛdʒɪm/ || tredgem || /ˈtrɛdʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 14 | ! 14 | ||
| quattorge || /ˈkwɒtərdʒ/ || quattorgem || / | | quattorge || /ˈkwɒtərdʒ/ || quattorgem || /kwɒˈtɔrdʒɪm/ || quattorgem|| /kwɒˈtɔrdʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 15 | ! 15 | ||
| kinge || /kɪndʒ/ || kingem || / | | kinge || /kɪndʒ/ || kingem || /ˈkɪndʒɪm/ || kingem || /ˈkɪndʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 16 | ! 16 | ||
| sedge || /sɛdʒ/ || sedgem || / | | sedge || /sɛdʒ/ || sedgem || /ˈsɛdʒɪm/||sedgem|| /ˈsɛdʒɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
| setditch || / | | setditch || /ˈsɛt.dɪtʃ/ || setditchem || /ˌsɛt.ˈdɪtʃɪm/ ||setditchem|| /ˌsɛt.ˈdɪtʃɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 20 | ! 20 | ||
| waint || /weɪnt/ || waintem || / | | waint || /weɪnt/ || waintem || /ˈweɪntɪm/ || waintem|| /ˈweɪntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 21 | ! 21 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 30 | ! 30 | ||
| traint || /treɪnt/ || traintem || / | | traint || /treɪnt/ || traintem || /ˈtreɪntɪm/ || traintem || /ˈtreɪntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 40 | ! 40 | ||
| quarent || / | | quarent || /ˈkwɔrɪnt/ || quarentem || /ˌkwɔˈrɛntɪm/ || quarentem || /ˌkwɔˈrɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 50 | ! 50 | ||
| chinkent || / | | chinkent || /ˈtʃɪŋkɪnt/ || chinkentem || /ˌtʃɪŋˈkɛntɪm/ || chinkentem || /ˌtʃɪŋˈkɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 60 | ! 60 | ||
| sixent || / | | sixent || /ˈsɪksɪnt/ || sixentem || /ˌsɪkˈsɛntɪm/ || sixentem || /ˌsɪkˈsɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 70 | ! 70 | ||
| settent || / | | settent || /ˈsɛtɪnt/ || settentem || /ˌsɛˈtɛntɪm/|| settentem || /ˌsɛˈtɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 80 | ! 80 | ||
| aughtent || / | | aughtent || /ˈɔːtɪnt/ || aughtentem || /ˌɔːˈtɛntɪm/ || aughtentem || /ˌɔːˈtɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 90 | ! 90 | ||
| novent || / | | novent || /ˈnoʊvɪnt/ || noventem || /ˌnoʊˈvɛntɪm/ || noventem || /ˌnoʊˈvɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 100 | ! 100 | ||
| chent || /tʃɛnt/ || chentem || / | | chent || /tʃɛnt/ || chentem || /ˈtʃɛntɪm/ || chentem || /ˈtʃɛntɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1000 | ! 1000 | ||
| mill || /mɪl/ || millem || / | | mill || /mɪl/ || millem || /ˈmɪlɪm/ || millem || /ˈmɪlɪm/ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 10⁶ | ! 10⁶ | ||
| million || /ˈmɪl.jən/ || millionem || / | | million || /ˈmɪl.jən/ || millionem || /mɪl.ˈjɒnəm/ || millionem || /mɪl.ˈjɒnəm/ | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
====Principal parts==== | ====Principal parts==== | ||
For the majority of verbs, the full conjugation can be determined from three principal parts: the | For the majority of verbs, the full conjugation can be determined from three principal parts: the bare infinitive, the simple past, and the past participle. | ||
These forms are given in dictionaries. Otherwise, the infinitive is used as the citation form. | These forms are given in dictionaries. Otherwise, the infinitive is used as the citation form. | ||
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*''-(e)st'' in the archaic second person singular | *''-(e)st'' in the archaic second person singular | ||
Besides the above | Other present tense forms use the basic infnite stem. | ||
Besides the above, only the highly irregular verb ''at est'' "to be" has differing personal forms. | |||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
Personal endings are added to the present and past stems. These stems are obtained from the 1S forms by removing the final ''-i'' if present. Note that if the 1S form does not end in ''-i'', the corresponding stem is identical to the 1S form. | Personal endings are added to the present and past stems. These stems are obtained from the 1S forms by removing the final ''-i'' if present. Note that if the 1S form does not end in ''-i'', the corresponding stem is identical to the 1S form. | ||
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As in English, continuous tenses are formed with the verb ''at est'' followed by the present participle, and the perfect is formed with the verb ''at have'' "to have" followed by the past participle. | As in English, continuous tenses are formed with the verb ''at est'' followed by the present participle, and the perfect is formed with the verb ''at have'' "to have" followed by the past participle. | ||
The future is formed with the modal verb ''woll'' "will" followed by the bare infinitive. | The future is formed with the modal verb ''woll'' "will" followed by the bare infinitive of the main verb (or auxiliary in continuous/perfect tenses). | ||
====Voice==== | ====Voice==== | ||
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====Negation and Interrogation==== | ====Negation and Interrogation==== | ||
Negation of verbs is ordinarily accomplished using the word ''newn'' "not" (which can be abbreviated as <i>'n</i>). | Negation of verbs is ordinarily accomplished using the word ''newn'' /n(j)uːn/ "not" (which can be abbreviated as <i>'n</i>). | ||
Negation and interrogation use the conjugated helping verb ''at fay'' "to do" followed by the bare infinitive. This construction can also be used in positive sentences for emphasis. Examples: | Negation and interrogation use the conjugated helping verb ''at fay'' "to do" followed by the bare infinitive. This construction can also be used in positive sentences for emphasis. Examples: | ||
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Modal verbs do not use the helping verb. Examples: | Modal verbs do not use the helping verb. Examples: | ||
* | *''Ill pote newn dorm.'' "He may not sleep." / ''Ill pote'n dorm.'' "He mayn't sleep." | ||
*'' | **Note: Unlike in English, the abbreviation ''pote'n'' "mayn't" is not archaic. | ||
*''Derry ill mange?'' "Should he eat?" | |||
Archaically, non-modal verbs can likewise form their negation and interrogation without the helping verb. Examples: | Archaically, non-modal verbs can likewise form their negation and interrogation without the helping verb. Examples: | ||
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====Examples of verbs==== | ====Examples of verbs==== | ||
'''Regular - '' | ====='''Regular - ''cant'' /kænt/, ''canteve'' /ˈkæntɪv/, ''cantet'' /ˈkæntɪt/ "to sing"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at cant'' "to sing" | |+ Conjugation of ''at cant'' "to sing" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
'''Irregular - '' | ====='''Irregular - ''cathe'' /keɪð/, ''case'' /keɪz/ "to fall"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at cathe'' "to fall" | |+ Conjugation of ''at cathe'' "to fall" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
'''Irregular - '' | ====='''Irregular - ''die'' /daɪ/, ''dix'' /dɪks/, ''dight'' /daɪt/ "to say"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at die'' "to say" | |+ Conjugation of ''at die'' "to say" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
'''Irregular - '' | ====='''Irregular - ''est'' /ɛst/, ''fow'' /foʊ/, ''estet'' /ˈɛstət/ "to be"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at est'' "to be" | |+ Conjugation of ''at est'' "to be" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
*''is'' /ɪz/ | |||
*''ist'' /ɪst/ | |||
*''son'' /sʌn/ | |||
*''fore'' /fɔr/ | |||
'''Irregular: '' | ====='''Irregular: ''have'' /hæv/, ''hat'' /hæt/ "to have"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at have'' "to have" | |+ Conjugation of ''at have'' "to have" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
'''Irregular - '' | ====='''Irregular - ''fay'' /feɪ/, ''fetch'' /fɛtʃ/, ''faight'' /feɪt/ "to do"'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Conjugation of ''at fay'' "to do" | |+ Conjugation of ''at fay'' "to do" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
*''fays'' /fɛz/ | |||
*''fayest'' /fɛst/ | |||
====Modal verbs==== | ====Modal verbs==== | ||
*''woll'' "will" | *''woll'' /wʊl/ "will" | ||
**Can contract as <i>'ll</i>. | **Can contract as <i>'ll</i>. | ||
**Contracts with ''newn'' as ''wo'n''. | **Contracts with ''newn'' as ''wo'n'' /woʊn/. | ||
*'' | *''woulce'' /wʊls/ "would" | ||
**Can contract as <i>' | **Can contract as <i>'lce</i>. | ||
*''shy'' "can (has the ability to)" | *''shy'' /ʃaɪ/ "can (has the ability to)" | ||
*'' | *''shiss'' /ʃɪs/ "could (had the ability to)" | ||
*''deve'' "must" | *''deve'' /diːv/ "shall" | ||
*''derry'' "should" | *''deuce'' /d(j)uːs/ "must" | ||
*''pote'' "may, can (is permitted to)" | *''derry'' /dɛri/ "should, ought to" | ||
*'' | *''pote'' /poʊt/ "may, can (is permitted to)" | ||
*''pouts'' /paʊts/ "might, could (was permitted to)" | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
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===Dependent clauses=== | ===Dependent clauses=== | ||
<!-- etc. etc. --> | <!-- etc. etc. --> | ||
==Vocabulary== | |||
===Time - ''Tense''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Seasons - ''Saisons'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| spring || printense /ˈprɪntɛns/ | |||
|- | |||
| summer || estate /ˈɛstɪt/ | |||
|- | |||
| fall || autumn /ˈɔːtəm/ | |||
|- | |||
| winter || ivern /ˈaɪvərn/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Gregorian months - ''Gregorian meeses'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| January || Yanevare /ˈjænvɛr/ | |||
|- | |||
| February || Feverare /ˈfɛvrɛr/ | |||
|- | |||
| March || March /mɑrtʃ/ | |||
|- | |||
| April || April /ˈeɪprɪl/ | |||
|- | |||
| May || May /meɪ/ | |||
|- | |||
| June || June /dʒuːn/ | |||
|- | |||
| July || Jule /dʒuːl/ | |||
|- | |||
| August || August /ˈɔːɡəst/ | |||
|- | |||
| September || September /sɛpˈtɛmbər/ | |||
|- | |||
| October || October /ɔkˈtoʊbər/ | |||
|- | |||
| November || November /noʊˈvɛmbər/ | |||
|- | |||
| December || December /dɪˈsɛmbər/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Days of the week - ''Yorns de le smane'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| Sunday || Dimendy /ˈdɪməndi/ <!--Dimenk /dɪˈmɛnk/--> | |||
|- | |||
| Monday || Londy /ˈlʌndi/ | |||
|- | |||
| Tuesday || Mardy /ˈmɑrdi/ | |||
|- | |||
| Wednesday || Merkerdy /ˈmɜrkərˌdi/ | |||
|- | |||
| Thursday || Yody /ˈjoʊdi/ | |||
|- | |||
| Friday || Wenderdy /ˈwɜrndi/ | |||
|- | |||
| Saturday || Sambdy /ˈsæmdi/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Parts of the day - ''Parts de le yorn'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| day || yorn /jɔrn/ | |||
|- | |||
| dawn || alb /ælb/ | |||
|- | |||
| morning || mattin /ˈmatɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| noon || middy /ˈmɪdi/ | |||
|- | |||
| afternoon || apressmiddy /ˈæprəsˌmɪdi/ | |||
|- | |||
| evening || seer /sir/ | |||
|- | |||
| dusk || wesper /ˈwɛspər/ | |||
|- | |||
| night || naught /nɔːt/ | |||
|- | |||
| midnight || midnaught /ˈmɪdnɔːt/ | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Units of time - ''Units de tense'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| second || second /ˈsɛkənd/ | |||
|- | |||
| minute || minute /ˈmɪnɪt/ | |||
|- | |||
| hour || hour /ˈaʊər/ | |||
|- | |||
| day || yorn /jɔrn/ | |||
|- | |||
| week || smane /ˈsmeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| month || meese /miːs/ | |||
|- | |||
| season || saison /ˈseɪzən/ | |||
|- | |||
| year || ann /æn/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Time adverbs - ''Tense adverbs'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| now || awore /əˈwɔr/ | |||
|- | |||
| then || lorce /lɔrs/ | |||
|- | |||
| recently, a short time ago || recentment /ˈriːsɪntmənt/ | |||
|- | |||
| earlier || setter /ˈsɛtər/ | |||
|- | |||
| soon, shortly || toast /toʊst/; cortly /ˈkɔrtli/ | |||
|- | |||
| later || tarder /ˈtardər/ | |||
|- | |||
| always || sempers /ˈsɛmpərz/ | |||
|- | |||
| often || sovent /ˈsʌvənt/ | |||
|- | |||
| sometimes || awetches /əˈwɛtʃɪz/ | |||
|- | |||
| rarely || rarement /ˈrɛrmənt/ | |||
|- | |||
| never || namace /ˈnæməs/ | |||
|- | |||
| ever || yamace /ˈjæməs/ | |||
|- | |||
| still, yet || ancor /'æŋkər/ | |||
|- | |||
| already || yay /jeɪ/ | |||
|- | |||
| today || oy /ɔɪ/; ayorn /əˈjɔrn/ | |||
|- | |||
| tonight || anought /əˈnɔːt/ | |||
|- | |||
| yesterday || ear /ir/ | |||
|- | |||
| last night || detrain nought /dəˈtreɪn nɔːt/ | |||
|- | |||
| tomorrow || demane /dəˈmeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| before yesterday || avent ear /ˈævənt ir/ | |||
|- | |||
| two nights ago || doose noughts poss /dus ˈnɔːts pɔs/ | |||
|- | |||
| after tomorrow || apress demane /ˈæprəs dəˈmeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| this week || chist smane /tʃɪst smeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| last week || detrain smane /dəˈtreɪn smeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
| next week || proppen smane /ˈprɔpən smeɪn/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Colours - ''Colours''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Colours - ''Colours'' | |||
! English !! Yutch | |||
|- | |||
| white || blank /blæŋk/ | |||
|- | |||
| grey || grice /ɡraɪs/ | |||
|- | |||
| black || nare /nɛr/ | |||
|- | |||
| red || roy /rɔɪ/ | |||
|- | |||
| orange || orange /ˈɔrəndʒ/ | |||
|- | |||
| brown || brune /bruːn/ | |||
|- | |||
| yellow || gall /ɡɔːl/ | |||
|- | |||
| green || word /wɜrd/ | |||
|- | |||
| blue || blaw /blɔː/ | |||
|- | |||
| pink || rose /roʊz/ | |||
|- | |||
| purple || purple /ˈpɜrpəl/ | |||
|- | |||
| golden || daurate /ˈdɔrɪt/ | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
| Line 697: | Line 900: | ||
Toot human estants nash liver et equal in dignitate et draights. Lie son endootet of raison et conscience, et lie derry age of une alter in a spirit de frathertate. | Toot human estants nash liver et equal in dignitate et draights. Lie son endootet of raison et conscience, et lie derry age of une alter in a spirit de frathertate. | ||
/tuːt | /tuːt ˈhjuːmən ˈɛstənts næʃ ˈlɪvər ət iːkwəl ɪn ˈdɪɡnɪtɪt ət dreɪts ‖ laɪ sʌn ənˈduːtət əv ˈreɪzən ət ˈkɒnʃəns | ət laɪ ˈdɛri eɪdʒ əv juːn ɔːltər ɪn ə ˈspɪrɪt də frɑːðərtɪt/ | ||
All human beings are born free and | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience, and they should act with one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | ||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== | ||