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Dogrish is a North Germanic language belonging to the Insular Nordic sub-branch. As such it is most closely related to Icelandic, Faroese and extinct Norn. Most notable similarities include the preserved case system and the continued usage of the letters ''ð'' and ''þ'' to represent the voiced and voiceless dentale frictative respectively.
Dogrish is a North Germanic language belonging to the Insular Nordic sub-branch. As such it is most closely related to Icelandic, Faroese and extinct Norn. Most notable similarities include the preserved case system and the continued usage of the letters ''ð'' and ''þ'' to represent the voiced and voiceless dentale frictative respectively.


===Standard Dogrish===
===Varieties of Dogrish===
There are two officially recognised standard varieties of Dogrish: Formal Dogrish (Dogrish: ''Formaldågrisk'') is the most widely used on the island, with Valley Dogrish (Dogrish: ''Dalarnerdågrisk'') being the officially recognised and used variety in the northwest of the island. Differences between the two officially recognised varieties are minor. In practice, however, the usage of these standard varieties in generally limited to the written word and supraregional interactions, as everyday interactions mostly take place in the local dialect.
====Standard Dogrish====
There are two officially recognised standard varieties of Dogrish: Formal Dogrish (Dogrish: ''Formaldågrisk'') covers the Central Dogrish dialects around Greywater Lake, Redwater Lake and the Reddow Valley, whilst Valley Dogrish (Dogrish: ''Dalarnerdågrisk'') covers the Valley Dogrish dialects of Twoway, the Giants' Fields, the Two Dales, the Riding of Northern Cliffland and the municipality of Westland.
 
In practice, the usage of these standard varieties in generally limited to the written word and supraregional interactions, as everyday interactions mostly take place in the local dialect.


Uniquely amongst Germanic languages, Formal Dogrish has preserved six grammatical cases, whereas Valley Dogrish has preserved five.<ref>Some local variaties, when using formal Dogrish, have preserved seven cases, but the usage of the seventh case, ''in casu'' the vocative, is generally considered archaic.</ref> However, it should be noted that of all grammatical aspects of Dogrish, both the number of preserved cases as well as the specific cases being preserved vary considerably between dialects and localities, with some local varieties preserving only the nominative and the genitive in the declension of nouns.
Uniquely amongst Germanic languages, Formal Dogrish has preserved six grammatical cases, whereas Valley Dogrish has preserved five.<ref>Some local variaties, when using formal Dogrish, have preserved seven cases, but the usage of the seventh case, ''in casu'' the vocative, is generally considered archaic.</ref> However, it should be noted that of all grammatical aspects of Dogrish, both the number of preserved cases as well as the specific cases being preserved vary considerably between dialects and localities, with some local varieties preserving only the nominative and the genitive in the declension of nouns.
Other differences include the pronunciation of final -ð: whereas Central Dogrish generally realises the final -ð as a voiced alveolar lateral approximant [l], Valley Dogrish realises it as a voiced dental frictative [ð]; and the år-ór merger: whereas Central Dogrish generally realises both ''å'' and ''ó'' as [o:], Valley Dogrish differentiates between [o:] and [ou̯].
====Friso-Dogrish====
Friso-Dogrish is the variety of Dogrish spoken in the southeast of Dogger, most notably in the Lochsteads, Idunna's Dunes, the Feurth Valley and the Ridings of Leyland and Southern Cliffland. It is the third most spoken variety of Dogrish and is written using Formal Dogrish.
Friso-Dogrish is characterised for using only four cases: the nominative, the genitive, the dative and the accusative. Whilst Friso-Dogrish differentiates between masculine, feminine and neuter in definite nouns, the masculine and neuter have merged in the declension of indefinite articles.
In terms of phonology, Friso-Dogrish is typified by its realisation of the letter ''ð'' as a voiced alveolar tap or flap /ɾ/ under all circumstances.
====Anglo-Dogrish====
Anglo-Dogrish is the variety of Dogrish spoken in Queensgarth in the northernmost reaches of the island and in the Anglodale in the province of Islesmidst. It is the fourth most widely spoken variety of Dogrish and is written using Valley Dogrish.
Anglo-Dogrish is characterised by using only the nominative and the genitive in the declension of nouns, adding the accusative only in the declension of pronouns. It also does not differentiate nouns based on grammatical gender and is the only variety of Dogrish to use an article instead of a suffix to indicate definiteness.
In terms of phonology, Anglo-Dogrish is most notably characterised by the lack of both preaspiration and consonant lengthening, e.g. ''þótt'', "thought", is pronounced [θou̯ʰt] in Formal Dogrish, but [θot] in Anglo-Dogrish, ''seggja'', "to say", is pronounced [ˈsej:ɐ] in Formal Dogrish, but [sej] in Anglo-Dogrish.
====Dutch Dogrish====
Dutch Dogrish is the least used variety of Dogrish and spoken in the Whispermere, the Uva Valley and in the Skow. It is written using Valley Dogrish, with the exception of the Skow, where Formal Dogrish is used instead.
Dutch Dogrish is characterised by the declension of nouns and pronouns in accordance with three cases: the nominative, the genitive and the accusative; and in accordance with only two grammatical genders, namely gendered and neuter, with no differentiation whatsoever for indefinite articles.
In terms of phonology, Dutch Dogrish is notable for being the only variety to devoice voiced consonants at the end of a word, including a final -ð being realised as a voiceless dental frictative /θ/. It is also notable for the rá-ró merger, with both ''á'' and ''ó'' realised as [ɑu̯], and the mann-månd merger, with both ''a'' and ''å'' being realised as /ɔ/ and any plosives following a nasal consonant being dropped.


===Usage===
===Usage===
Despite certain areas of the island being monolingually Frisian, English or Dutch, Dogrish is taught nationwide and understood by almost all inhabitants. In monolingually Frisian, English or Dutch areas of the island, bilingualism between the local language and one of the two standard varieties of Dogrish is the norm. The only exception to this is the urban area of St George's Haven in the northernmost corner of the island, where all signage, education and government communication is done only in English.
Despite certain areas of the island being monolingually Frisian, English or Dutch, Dogrish is taught nationwide and understood by almost all inhabitants. In monolingually Frisian, English or Dutch areas of the island, bilingualism between the local language and one of the two standard varieties of Dogrish is the norm. The only exception to this is the urban area of St George's Haven in the northernmost corner of the island, where all signage, education and government communication is done only in English.
====Number of speakers====
In-universe, over 5.2 million Dogric citizens out of just short of 6 million, or about 87%, speak Dogrish as a first language, with the remainder speaking it as a second language. The total number of speakers, formally equivalent to the total population of the Island Provinces of Dogger, is 5,997,215 as per the 2023 census.
The most commonly used variety of standardised Dogrish is Formal Dogrish, used by approximately 50% of the population. Second is Valley Dogrish at 34%, followed by Friso-Dogrish at a distant third position with 14%. Just short of 3% of the population uses Anglo-Dogrish, and less than 1%, or 42,301 citizens, uses Dutch Dogrish.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Number of speakers per language and variety of Dogrish (2023 census)
|-
! colspan="10" |  Dogrish !! rowspan="3" | Dogric Frisian !! rowspan="3" | English !! rowspan="3" | Dogric Dutch
|-
! colspan="2" | Formal Dogrish !! colspan="2" | Valley Dogrish !! colspan="2" | Friso-Dogrish !! colspan="2" | Anglo-Dogrish !! colspan="2" | Dutch Dogrish
|-
! First language !! Second language !! First language !! Second language !! First language !! Second language !! First language !! Second language !! First language !! Second language
|-
| 2,989,992 || 16,222 || 2,000,304 || 14,791 || 182,221 || 633,009 || 42,484 || 75,891 || 18,211 || 24,090 || rowspan="2" | 660,235 || rowspan="2" | 78,738 || rowspan="2" | 25,030
|-
| colspan="10" | Total '''first language''' speakers: 5,233,212
|}


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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-->
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
====Alphabet====
The Dogrish alphabet consists of 31 letters.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Names of letters
|-
! Letter !! Name !! Pronuciation || Most common corresponding phonemes
|-
| A a || ''Hyvud-A'' ("main A") || [ˈhy:vɘðˌɔ] || [a], [ɑ], [ɔ], [ɑu̯]
|-
| Á á || ''Langa A'' ("long A") || [ˌlɑu̯ŋka.ˈa] || [ɑu̯]
|-
| B b || ''Begja'' || [ˈbej:ə] || [b]
|-
| D d || ''Degja'' || [ˈdej:ə] || [d], [ˀ]
|-
| Ð ð || ''Eð'' || [ɤð] || [ð], [ɫ], [ɾ], [θ], [ˀ]
|-
| E e || ''Egja'' || [ˈej:ə] || [e], [ɛ], [ə]
|-
| F f || ''Eff'' || [ɛf:] || [f], [v], [w]
|-
| G g || ''Gegja'' || [ˈgej:ə] || [g], [j]
|-
| H h || ''Hå'' || [ho:] || [h], [ç]
|-
| I i || ''Hyvud-i'' || [ˈhy:vɘðˌɨ] || [ɪ], [ɨ]
|-
| Í í || ''Langa i'' || [ˌlɑu̯ŋka.ˈi] || [i], [i:]
|-
| J j || ''Jóð'' || [jou̯ð] || [j], [ʲ]
|-
| K k || ''Kå'' || [ko:] || [k], [x]
|-
| L l || ''Ell'' || [ɛtːl̥] || [l]
|-
| M m || ''Emm'' || [ɛm:] || [m]
|-
| N n || ''Enn'' || [ɛn:] || [n]
|-
| O o || ''Hyvud-O'' || [ˈhy:vɘðˌo] || [o], [ɔ]
|-
| Ó ó || ''Langa O'' || [ˌlɑu̯ŋka.ˈo] || [ou̯]
|-
| P p || ''Pegja'' || [ˈpej:ə] || [p], [f]
|-
| Q q<sup>1</sup> || ''Ku'' || [ku:] || [k]
|-
| R r || ''Er'' || [ɛɐ] || [r], [ɐ], vowel lengthening
|-
| S s || ''Ess'' || [es:] || [s]
|-
| T t || ''Tegja'' || [ˈtej:ə] || [t], [l], [ˀ]
|-
| U u || ''U'' || [u:] || [u], [u:]
|-
| V v || ''Vegja'' || [ˈvej:ə] || [v], [u̯]
|-
| X x<sup>1</sup> || ''Eksa'' || [ˈɛksa] || [ks]
|-
| Y y || ''Y'' || [y:] || [y]
|-
| Þ þ || ''Þorn'' || [θɔ:ˀn] || [θ]
|-
| Æ æ || ''Æ'' || [æ:] || [æ]
|-
| Ö ö || ''Ö'' || [ø:] || [ø], [œ]
|-
| Å å || ''Å'' || [o:] || [o:]
|-
| colspan=4|<sup>1</sup> The letters Q and X are only used in Anglo-Dogrish spelling, and there only unofficially.
|}
====Digraphs and trigraphs====
In addition to the base alphabet, Dogrish also uses fourteen digraphs and two trigraphs.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Multigraphs
|-
! Multigraph !! Most common associated phoneme
|-
| ''av'' || [au̯]
|-
| ''dj'' || [ɟ]
|-
| ''ej'' || [ɑi̯], [ɛi̯]
|-
| ''eyj'' || [œi̯]
|-
| ''gj'' || [j:]
|-
| ''ng'' || [ŋ]
|-
| ''óv'' || [ow]
|-
| ''ófð'' || [ow:]
|-
| ''sj'' || [ɕ]
|-
| ''tj'' || [c]
|-
| ''uv'' || [u:u̯]
|-
| ''yv'' || [yu̯]
|-
| ''æi'' || [æ:i̯]
|-
| ''öj'' || [ɤy̯]
|-
| ''öy'' || [œy̯]
|-
| ''åi'' || [oːi̯]
|}
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
The number and nature of the consonant phonemes of Dogrish is subject to broad disagreement, due to a complex relationship amongst consonant allophones and due to some phonemes being restricted to only one or a limited number of the officially recognised varieties of Dogrish.
====Major allophones====
Even the number of major allophones is subject to some dispute, although less than for phonemes. The following is a chart of potentially contrastive phones (important phonetic distinctions which minimally contrast in some positions with known phonemes; not a chart of actual phonemes).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Consonant phones
|-
! !! Labial !! Coronal !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| m̥  m || n̥  n || ɲ̊  ɲ || ŋ̊  ŋ ||
|-
! Plosive
| p  b || t  d || c  ɟ || k  ɡ̥ ||
|-
! Sibilant frictative
|  || s  ʃ || ɕ ||  || 
|-
! Nonsibilant frictatives
| f  v || θ  ð || x  ç || || h
|-
! Approximant
| w  ʋ || || j || ||
|-
! Tap/flap
| || (ɾ̥)  (ɾ) || || ||
|-
! Trill
| || r̥  r || || ||
|-
! Lateral frictative
| || (ɬ) || || ||
|-
! Lateral approximant
| || l̥  l (ɫ) || || ||
|}
====Alternations====
The following consonants are pronounced differently depending on their position:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Alternations
|-
! !! Normal !! Unclustered before a vowel !! Preceding a voiceless dental plosive !! Preceding a voiced dental plosive !! Preceding a nasal consonant or lateral approximant
|-
! F
| ''staf'' [stá:f]<br>"(wooden) staff" || rowspan="2" | ''gífa'' [ˈji:vɐ]<br>"to give" || ''gíft'' [ji:ˀf]<br>"gives"  || ''hófgårð'' [ˈhou̯ˀwˌgo:ɐð]<br>"courtyard" || ''grafner'' [ˈgrapnə]<br>"digger"
|-
! G
| ''grönn'' [gɾøn:]<br>"green" || ''segt'' [sé:xt]<br>"says" || ''skógdalur'' [ˈskou̯çˌdalɤr̥]<br>"forest valley" || ''sagn'' [saˀn̩]<br>"tale, story"
|-
! H
| colspan="2" | ''hus'' [hú:s]<br>"house" || N/A || N/A || ''hnjæi'' [xɲ̊æ:i̯]<br>"knee"
|-
! K
| colspan="2" | ''kólð'' [kou̯lð]<br>"cold" || ''hakt'' [haxt]<br>"chops" || N/A || ''knoll'' [çnotl̥]<br>"knoll"
|-
! P
| colspan="2" | ''penn'' [pen:]<br>"pen" || ''lópt'' [lou̯ft]<br>"walks" || colspan="2" | N/A
|}
A special case of alternation are the collective nouns which are formed using the circumfix e-[root]-t, where, if the final phoneme of the root word is an elongated non-nasal consonant or a consonant cluster, the entire final consonant cluster becomes a ''stófð'':
: ''efjællt'' [əˈfjæ:ˀ], "mountain range"
: ''efuglt'' [ə̯ˈfu:ˀ], "poultry, birds"
but
: ''ebejnt'' [əˈbai̯nt], "skeleton, bones".


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
====Diphthongs====
[introduction]
=====Consecutive diphthongs=====
It is not uncommon for multiple diphthongs to occur consecutively, especially in compound words, in which case they are assimilated into one another with a pitch accent (see below) falling on the last diphthong. If the diphthong(s) preceding the pitched diphthong contain(s) a lengthened vowel, that vowel is reduced to its shortened form.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Examples of consecutive diphthongs
|-
! Word !! Pronunciation !! Meaning
|-
| ''Åieyjer'' || [oi̯.œi̯ꜜəɐ] || A Dogric municipality. Losely translated as "riverbed islands".
|-
| ''Höjæiöyer'' || [hɤy̯æi̯.œy̯ꜜəɐ] || "High hillside meadows".
|}
===Prosody===
===Prosody===
Stress, ''stófð'', pitch accent and intonation are prosodic features of Dogrish phonology. Indistinct durational differences are also present and are dependent on the surrounding phonemes, but these are usually considered an integral part of the vowel phonemes rather than a distinct prosodic feature.
====Stress====
====Stress====
Dogrish stress is phonemic in nature and not always easily predictable. Nevertheless, some general rules exist.
# Stress never falls on an affix, nor does it fall on the final syllable of a regular verb in any of its conjugated iterations:
## ''umöglig'' [uˈmø:li], "impossible"
## ''kyrkelös'' [ˈky:kəløs], "churchless"
# Stress never falls on a syllable following a ''stófð''; if, within a sentence, the first syllable of a word is stressed but follows a ''stófð'' in the previous word, a devoiced schwa is interfixed:
## ''han skyljet ikke'' [ˈhɑn ˌskyljˀɯ̥.ˈiˀə], "he will not".
# Stress always falls on the pitch accent if a word has one.
====Stófð====
''Stófð'' is a common prosodic feature that is realised as a creaky voice, often in combination with a posterior glottal approximant<ref>In some dialects the glottal approximant may be realised as a voiced pharyngeal frictative.</ref>. It is similar to the Danish ''stød''.
Unlike ''sang'' (see below), ''stófð'' only seems to occur on certain monosyllables that find their origin in Old Norse, notwithstanding grammatical modifiers, and which may have been accented or pitched in a particular manner.
Within the universe wherein Dogrish is used, debate between linguists is ongoing about the nature of ''stófð''. It is believed that ''stófð'' precedes ''sang'', due to the fact that under almost all circumstances ''stófð'' neutralises ''sang'' in compound words or speedily uttered phrases, thus indicating that ''sang'' may have occured or become commonplace later in time.
''Stófð'' is indicated in neither Formal Dogrish nor Valley Dogrish spelling.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Similar phonemes with and without stófð
|-
! Without stófð !! With stófð
|-
| skóg [sko:u̯]<br>"forest" || skóv [skou̯ˀ]<br>"shire"
|-
| lár [lɑu̯ɐ]<br>"low" || lav [lau̯ˀ]<br>"lukewarm"
|-
| sófður [sów:ə]<br>"soft" || sóver [ˈsowˀ.ə]<br>"to sleep"
|-
|}
====Pitch accent====
Some words and in particular some vowel combinations may exhibit a prosodic feature known as a pitch accent, or ''sang'' [sau̯ŋ]. Both monosyllabic and polysyllabic words may feature a pitch accent.
If the pitch accent falls on a monosyllabic word, the monosyllabic word is uttered in a higher register than the adjecent syllables.
If the pitch accent falls on the initial syllable of a polysyllabic word, the first syllable is uttered in a high pitch and the following syllables in a falling pitch.
If the pitch accent falls on a noninitial syllable of a polysyllabic word, the syllables preceding the accented syllable are pronounced with a low pitch and, depending on the variety of Dogrish, any lengthened vowels and consonants are shortened. This is then followed by a syllable break, whereafter the accented syllable is pronounced with a high pitch and, depending on the variety of Dogrish, lengthened to between 1.5 and 3 times the length of the low pitch vowel or vowels. Vowels following the pitched vowel, if there are any, are pronounced with a falling pitch at normal length.
If a word contains two or more consecutive diphthongs, there will always be a pitch accent on the final diphthong of the consecutive string. Whether monosyllabic words consisting of just one diphthong preceding a word starting with a diphthong are counted as part of a string of consecutive diphthongs differs per dialect.
A word that contains a ''stófð'' cannot also contain a pitch accent. If a compound word contains both a ''stófð'' and a pitch accent, the pitch accent is realised as a normal stress. However, if a compound word contains multiple diphthongs consecutively, there will always be a pitch accent on the final diphthong and any ''stófð'' is neutralised.
Pitch accents are not indicated in either Formal Dogrish or Valley Dogrish spelling.
{| class="wikitable"  style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Examples of pitch accent
|-
! Sófður !! Grönnkrístvís !! Höjæiöyer !! colspan="2" | Av eyjitt
|-
| [sów:ə] || [gɾøn.kɾí:stʋìs] || [hɤy̯æi̯.œy̯əɐ] || [au̯ˀ ˈœi̯ɪʰt]<br>(Central Dogrish)  || [au̯.œi̯ɪʰt]<br>(Valley Dogrish)
|-
| HꜜL || L-HꜜL || L-L-HꜜL || no pitch accent || L-HꜜL
|-
| "Soft" || A Dogric city. || "High hillside meadows" || colspan="2" | "Of the island"
|}
=====''Stófð'' versus ''sang''=====
Similar words that carry different meaning depending on whether they feature ''stófð'', ''sang'' or neither are known as siblings.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Sibling words
|-
! Neither !! Stófð !! Sang || Example sentence
|-
| ''hun'' [hu:n]<br>"she" || ''hunð'' [hunˀ]<br>"dog" || ''hun'' [hún]<br>"grouse" || ''Hun hær en hunð og en hun'' [ˈhu:n ˌhæ:ɐn ˈhunˀ owən hún]<br>"She has a dog and a grouse"
|-
| ''hönn'' [høn:]<br>"him" (dative) || ''hönð'' [hønˀ]<br>"hand" || hön [hǿn]<br>"rooster, cock" || ''Hönen hönn gift hönðen'' [hǿn`ən ˌhøn: jif ˈhønˀn] <br>"The rooster shook his hand"
|-
| ''hej'' [hɑi̯]<br>"hi" (greeting) || ''hej'' [hɑi̯ˀ]<br>"hay" || ''hej'' [hái̯]<br>"shark" || ''Hej, í hejet ert en hej'' [hɑi̯. i hɑi̯ˀə̆ˀ ɛˀn hái̯]<br>"Hey, there's a shark in the hay"
|}
====Intonation====
====Intonation====


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<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Cases===
[[File:Dialects and languages - cases bg - Copy.png|thumb|right|500px|Distribution of case systems across the island of Dogger.]]
Dogrish nouns, pronouns and adjectives are declined in up to six cases: the nominative, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the ablative and the locative. Some dialects still use a seventh case: the vocative. There are however no dialects that use all seven cases, as the only dialects where the vocactive has persisted have also merged the locative into the ablative.
The number and nature of grammatical cases varies greatly between and within varieties and dialects of Dogrish:
* the '''Swamp Dogrish case system''' (dark purple on map) features the vocative and has merged the locative into the ablative for a total of six cases
* the '''Formal Dogrish case system''' (red on map) features the abovementioned six grammatical cases
* the '''Valley Dogrish case system''' (light purple on map) has merged the locative into the ablative for a total of five cases
* the '''Heathside Dogrish case system''' (yellow on map) has merged the genitive into the accusative for a total of five cases
* the '''Friso-Dogrish case system''' (green on map) features the four "traditional" Germanic cases: nominative, genitive, dative and accusative
* the '''Dutch Dogrish case system''' (orange on map) has merged the dative into the accusative for a total of three cases
* the '''Anglo-Dogrish case system''' (blue on map) uses only the genitive, and only occasionally.
In effect, the number and nature of grammatical cases used in speech may vary from person to person depending on their fluency in both their local dialect and their spoken variety of standardised Dogrish, especially with the increased interregional mobility and influences from foreign languages in more modern times.
With the onset of television in the late 20th century, the Formal Dogrish and Valley Dogrish case systems have become more widely used, whereas the accusative case disappeared in English Dogrish during the same period due to more present influence from English-language media.
The most used case system amongst Dogric citizens who speak Dogrish as a first or second language is Formal Dogrish, with over 40% using it. Second is Valley Dogrish with 35%, followed by Friso-Dogrish at just short of 20%. Approximately 3% of the population uses the Anglo-Dogrish case system, with the remaining 2% divided amongst the Dutch, Heathside and Swamp Dogrish systems, all three of which only occur in sparsely populated and relatively isolated rural communities.
===Nouns===
====Declension====
Nouns are declined according to gender, number and definiteness, with the definite article and the indefinite plural article being affixed to the word, whilst the indefinite singular article remains a separate word preceding the noun. In practice, the indefinite singular article is rarely used in neither spoken nor written language, its usage being considered very formal.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Declension of nouns
|-
! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="4" | Masculine !! colspan="4" | Feminine !! colspan="4" | Neuter
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite
|-
! Nominative
| -en || en || -erne || -er || -en || en || -arna || -ar || -ið<sup>1</sup>/-itt<sup>2</sup> || et || -erne || -er
|-
! Genitive
| -ens || -(e)s || -ernes || -ers || -arn || -ars || -arnas || -arns || -inn<sup>1</sup>/-itts<sup>2</sup> || -(e)s || -ernas || -ar
|-
! Dative
| -em || enem || -ernem || -erm || -en || am || -ernam || -arm || -inni<sup>1</sup>/-iði<sup>2</sup> || ið || -ernam || -arm
|-
! Accusative
| -en || enen || -erne || -er || -en || en || -arna || -ar || -ið<sup>1</sup>/-itt<sup>2</sup> || en || -erne || -er
|-
! Ablative
| -ent || enenna || -eðenna || -ert || -ena || ena || -aðenna || -art || -irinn<sup>1</sup>/-irið<sup>2</sup> || ið || -að || -ert
|-
! Locative
| -ent || enent || -einnt || -ereð || -enar || enar || -ainnt || -areð || -irinnt<sup>1</sup>/-iritt<sup>2</sup> || itt || -einnt || -arenað
|-
| colspan="13" | <sup>1</sup> Used after an open vowel. <sup>2</sup>Used after a closed vowel, ignoring umlaut.
|}
====Vocative====
The vocative is declined according to number and gender. Masculine and neuter singular nouns undergo umlaut when declined in the vocative. Stress always falls on the final syllable in the vocative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Vocative declension
|-
! colspan="4" | Masculine !! colspan="4" | Feminine !! colspan="4" | Neuter
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite !! Definite !! Indefinite
|-
| -ennen || -ut || -is || -i || -enna || -(nn)a || -eras || -eran || -enitt || -uð || -eras || -a
|-
| ''mænnennen''<br>"the man!" || ''mænnut''<br>"man!" || ''mænnis''<br>"the men!" || ''mænni''<br>"men!" || ''fráenna''<br>"the woman!" || ''fránna''<br>"woman!" || ''fráeras''<br>"the women!" || ''fráeran''<br>"women!" || ''hysenitt''<br>"the house! || ''hysuð''<br>"house!" || ''hyseras''<br>"the houses! || ''hysa''<br>"houses!"
|}
Although the vocative is still used integrally in only a small number of very localised dialects in the more isolated swamplands and marshes of Leyland, Ravennest, the Wolds and the Evendale, it still frequently occurs in set expressions in the main varieties of Dogrish. Examples include:
:- '''mænnennen ert hun!''', "he is the man!"
:- '''hljápa, fránna!''', "run, woman!"
:- '''bjerna, baka til klassen!''', "children, back to class!"
====Diminutive====
The diminutive is formed by adding a suffix to a noun and occasionally to an adjective or verb.
The following suffixes are used:
* '''-ling''' for masculine words (''drenge'', "boy" becomes ''drengling'', "little boy")
* '''-lín''' for feminine words (''mejð'', "girl/maid" becomes ''mejlín'', "little girl")
* '''-ikki''' for neuter ords (''bjern'', "child" becomes ''bjernikki'', "little child")
* '''-ís''' for names and words of relation, as a term of endearment (ex. ''mamma'', "mom" becomes ''mammarís'', "mommy"; ''Anna'' becomes ''Annarís'', ''Davíð'' becomes ''Davíðís'')
Note that ''-ís'' is a term of endearment; the other suffixes can also be affixed to a name or word of relation, but will have a different connotation, whilst using the neuter suffix to make a name or word of relation diminutive is considered pejorative (ex. '''Annalín''' for "little Anna/Annie" or '''Davílling''' for "little David/Davy", either to indicate a young age or to compare to an older person with the same name; '''Annikki''' or '''Davikki''', meanwhile, would be used out of condescension).
Usage of the diminutive differs vastly between varieties of Dogrish, but is generally commonplace except in Anglo-Dogrish, where it is nearly nonexistent. The diminutive is used so commonly in Dutch Dogrish that it is generally seen as its defining characteristic and thus frequently becomes the subject of imitation and satire of Dutch Doggerlanders.
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
Personal pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case.
In practice, the ablative and locative are, in speech, often replaced with the dative and accusative respectively, and their usage in personal pronouns is considered formal and archaic. Meanwhile, personal pronouns are the only aspect of Dogrish grammar where across the five standard varieties the vocative is still commonly used.
=====The genitive=====
The genitive can be declined according to the gender of the word which it refers to. For example:
: ''Hveres ert husið?'', "Whose (the) house is [it]?", or more accurately "Who does the house belong to?"
: ''Husið ert '''mítt''''', "The house is mine".
Here the 1st person genitive personal pronoun refers to a neuter word and thus becomes ''mítt''. Compare:
: ''Hveres ert mannen?'', "Whose (the) husband is [that]?"
: ''Han ert '''mínn''''', "He is mine".
Here the 1st person genitive personal pronoun refers to a masculine word and thus becomes ''mínn.''
=====Gender=====
When referring to an animate object such as a person or an animal, the gender of the animate object becomes leading rather than the grammatical gender. For example:
: ''Hveres ert mejlínið?'', "Whose (the) girl) is [that]?"
: ''Hun ert '''mínna''''', "She is mine".
Despite ''mejlín'' being grammatically neuter, due to the word referring to a feminine person it is declined in the feminine.
Up until the early 21st century, using the neuter to decline personal pronouns referring to animate objects was considered highly offensive. If a person's gender was not known, declension defaulted to the masculine. However, since the early 2020s, especially in the larger and more progressive cities of Dogger, it has become more common to use the neuter to refer to nonbinary individuals or to individuals whose gender is unknown.
In all varieties of Dogrish it has become accepted to refer to individuals whose gender is unknown in the 3rd person neuter and to decline the genitive using the neuter. In 2023, the Valley Dogrish Language Authority officially declared the usage of the neuter to refer to nonbinary persons grammatically correct.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Declension of pronouns
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | !! colspan="5" | Singular !! colspan="5" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person !! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! colspan="2" | Nominative
| Jag || Þu || Han || Hun || Það || Ví || Þí || Þeir || Þár || Þyr
|-
! rowspan="4" | Genitive
|-
! Masculine
| Mínn || Þínn || Hanns || Hennes || Þess || Ósin || Ísin || Þeirrer || Þárrer || Þyrer
|-
! Feminine
| Mínna || Þínna || Hanna || Henna || Þessa || Ósa || Ísa || Þeirra || Þárra || Þyra
|-
! Neuter
| Mítt || Þítt || Hatt || Hette || Þett || Ósið || Ísið || Þeitt || Þátt || Þytt
|-
! colspan="2" | Dative
| Mjer || Þjer || Hönn || Hynna || Því || Ös || Ys || Þeim || Þaram || Þyrim
|-
! colspan="2" | Accusative
| Mig || Þig || Hann || Hunn || Þæð || Ós || Ísi || Þá || Þá || Þá
|-
! colspan="2" | Ablative
| Mínent || Þínent || Hænent || Hjunent || Þæðið || Entví || Entþví || Þeimma || Þámma || Þymmi
|-
! colspan="2" | Locative
| Mínent || Þínent || Hinnun || Hjunnun || Þæðun || Ösent || Ysent || Þeirent || Þárent || Þyrint
|-
! colspan="2" | Vocative
| Mín || Þín || Hán || Hjun || Þíð || Ví || Þí || Þei || Þej || Þeyj
|}
====Possessive pronouns====
Possessive pronouns are declined according to gender, number and case. They precede the noun which they refer to. When a possessive pronoun is used, the noun which it refers to will only be declined according to number (singular or plural), with case and article being indicated by the possessive pronoun. Feminine words ending in -a lose their -a when preceded by a possessive pronoun.
Possessive pronouns are less frequently used than the genitive personal pronoun. It is argued that possessive pronouns have recently taken over the function of the vocative when referring to possessions, as words for which previously the vocative may have been used are now always preceded by a possessive pronoun, and if no direct personal possessive relation is present a placeholder "eð" is used instead.
Possessive pronouns referring to masculine and neuter words are declined using the same suffixes as nouns, which are affixed to the following roots:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Possessive pronouns referring to masculine and feminine words
|-
! colspan="5" | Singular !! colspan="5" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person !! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
| Min- || Þin- || Sin- || Hinn- || Þav- || Vór- || Þin- || Þerr- || Þerr- || Þirr-
|}
Possessive pronouns referring to neuter words have their own seperate declension.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Possessive pronouns referring to neuter words
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" | !! colspan="5" | Singular !! colspan="5" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person !! rowspan="2" | 1st person !! rowspan="2" | 2nd person !! colspan="3" | 3rd person
|-
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! colspan="2" | Nominative
| Mitt || Þitt || Sitt || Hitt || Þett || Ótt || Ytt || Þeitt || Þeitt || Þeitt
|-
! colspan="2" | Genitive
| Minn || Þinn || Sinn || Hinn || Þitts || Ótts || Ytts || Þeitts || Þátts || Þitts
|-
! colspan="2" | Dative
| Mið || Þið || Sið || Hið || Þinni || Ónni || Ynni || Þeið || Þáð || Þið
|-
! colspan="2" | Accusative
| Mitt || Þitt || Sitt || Hitt || Þett || Ótt || Ytt || Þeitt || Þatt || Þeitt
|-
! colspan="2" | Ablative
| Mir || Þir || Sir || Hirr || Þir || Ór || Yr || Þeir || Þeir || Þeir
|-
! colspan="2" | Locative
| Minnt || Þinnt || Sinnt || Hinnt || Þiritt || Ónnt || Ynnt || Þeinnt || Þeinnt || Þeinnt
|}
===Numerals===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are declined according to gender and number.
====First declension====
The first adjectival declension of the Dogrish language covers the declension of adjectives ending in all except nasal consonants, as well as those adjectives ending in -å, -y or -á. The adjective ''ró'' ("calm, quiet, sedate") is also declined using the first declension.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ First declension
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine !! colspan="2" | Neuter
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| -en || -er || -a || -ar || -et || -er
|-
! Genitive
| -es || -er || -en || -ar || -es || -er
|-
! Dative
| -em || -erm || -ar || -ar || -em || -er
|-
! Accusative
| -en || -er || -en || -ar || -et || -er
|-
! Ablative
| -ent || -ert || -ena || -art || -ið || -ir
|-
! Locative
| -ent || -ert || -enar || -art || -itt || -ir
|}
====Second declension====
The second declension covers adjectives ending in nasal consonants -n, -m and -ng.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Second declension
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine !! colspan="2" | Neuter
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| -en || -er || -a || -ar || -t || -er
|-
! Genitive
| -s || -er || -en || -ar || -s || -er
|-
! Dative
| -em || -erm || -ar || -ar || -em || -er
|-
! Accusative
| -en || -er || -en || -ar || -t || -er
|-
! Ablative
| -t || -er || -ar || -art || -ið || -ir
|-
! Locative
| -t || -er || -ar || -art || -itt || -ir
|}
====Third declension====
The third declension covers adjectives ending in all vowels except -å, -y and -á.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Third declension
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | Masculine !! colspan="2" | Feminine !! colspan="2" | Neuter
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| -ne || -re || -nna || -ra || -nt || -r
|-
! Genitive
| -se || -re || -nnen || -ra || -nn || -r
|-
! Dative
| -nem || -rm || -nnar || -ra || -nem || -r
|-
! Accusative
| -nen || -re || -nnen || -ra || -nt || -r
|-
! Ablative
| -net || -rt || -nnar || -rt || -rið || -r
|-
! Locative
| -net || -rt || -nnar || -rt || -ritt || -r
|}
====Fourth declension====
The fourth declension covers the archaic vocative and is formed by using the stem of the adjective without any modifiers.
===Verbs===
Dogrish verbs are conjugated according to tense, mood, number and person.
Verbs are conjugated according to three tenses: the present, the past, and the future. They are also conjugated according to four moods: the indicative, the imperative, the conditional and the subjunctive.
Verbs always end in '''-a''', '''-ja''', '''-er''', '''-å''' or '''-á'''.
Dogrish verbs are divided into strong verbs, which follow irregular conjugation patterns and are subjected to umlaut, and weak verbs, which follow a regular conjugation pattern. Verbs ending in '''-å''' form a special case: in the present tense they follow the regular conjugation pattern of a weak verb, but in the past tense each '''-å''' verb follows a different irregular conjugation.
====Strong verbs====
====Weak verbs====
=====Present tense=====
======Indicative======
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! width="100px" | Number || colspan=3| Singular || colspan=3| Plural
|-
! Person
! width="100px" | Jag<br>''I'' !! width="100px" | Þu<br>''you (sing.)'' !! width="100px" | Han/Hun/Það<br>''he/she/it'' !! width="100px" | Ví<br>''we'' !! width="100px"| Þí<br>''you (pl.)'' !! width="100px" | Þeir/Þár/Þyr<br>''they''
|-
! -a verbs<br>tala<br>''to talk''
| tale<br>''talk'' || talað<br>''talk'' || tlet<br>''talks'' || colspan="3" | talar<br>''talk''
|-
! -ja verbs<br>segja<br>''to say''
| segje<br>''say'' || segjið<br>''say'' || segt<br>''says'' || segjun<br>''say'' || colspan="2" | segjar<br>''say''
|-
! -er verbs<br>lærer<br>''to learn''
| lære<br>''learn'' || læreð<br>''learn'' || læret<br>''learns'' || lærun<br>''learn'' || colspan="2" | lærer<br>''learn''
|-
! -å verbs<br>gå<br>''to go''
| gå<br>''go'' || gått<br>''go'' || gået<br>''goes'' || colspan="3" | gåer<br>''go''
|-
! -á verbs<br>þvá<br>''to wash''
| þvå<br>''wash'' || þvað<br>''wash'' || þvået<br>''washes'' || þvön<br>''wash'' || þvið<br>''wash'' || þva<br>''wash''
|}
=====Past tense=====
======Indicative======
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! width="100px" | Number || colspan=3| Singular || colspan=3| Plural
|-
! Person
! width="100px" | Jag<br>''I'' !! width="100px" | Þu<br>''you (sing.)'' !! width="100px" | Han/Hun/Það<br>''he/she/it'' !! width="100px" | Ví<br>''we'' !! width="100px"| Þí<br>''you (pl.)'' !! width="100px" | Þeir/Þár/Þyr<br>''they''
|-
! -a verbs<br>tala<br>''to talk''
| talade<br>''talked'' || taladað<br>''talked'' || talade<br>''talked'' || colspan="3" | talarad<br>''talked''
|-
! -ja verbs<br>segja<br>''to say''
| segjade<br>''said'' || segjað<br>''said'' || segte<br>''said'' || segten<br>''said'' || colspan="2" | segter<br>''said''
|-
! -er verbs<br>lærer<br>''to learn''
| lærade<br>''learnt'' || læraðe<br>''learnt'' || lærde<br>''learnt'' || lærten<br>''learnt'' || colspan="2" | lærter<br>''learnt''
|-
! -á verbs<br>þvá<br>''to wash''
| þvu<br>''washed'' || þvuað<br>''washed'' || þvytt<br>''washed'' || þvönntun<br>''washed'' || þvejeð<br>''washed'' || þvánn<br>''washed''
|}
===Adverbs===
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<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->


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==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
In general, the Dogrish language is classified as a V2 language, meaning that the finite verb of a sentence or clause is placed in the clause's second position. The main exception to this is Anglo-Dogrish: the Anglo-Dogrish spoken around St George's Haven strictly uses SVO or subject-object-verb, whereas the Anglo-Dogrish spoken in the Anglodale uses VSO or verb-subject-object.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Word order comparison
|-
! English !! Formal Dogrish (V2) !! Anglo-Dogrish (SVO) !! Anglo-Dogrish (VSO)
|-
| María did '''not want to read''' the newspaper today. || Íþægen '''villt''' María tíðningen '''inte lesa'''. || María '''villt inte lesa''' tíðningen íþægen. || '''Lesa villt inte''' María tíðningen íþægen.
|-
| Today I'm '''going to walk''' in the woods. || Íþægen '''gå''' jag í skógent '''tråða'''.|| Jag '''skylje gå tråða''' í skógen íþægen. || '''Gå tråða''' jag í skógen íþægen.
|}
====Word order rigidity====
Rigidity of the word order is generally dependent on the morphological characteristics of the local dialect. In general, the more cases the local variety of Dogrish maintains, the less rigid the word order becomes.
=====Low-rigidity word order=====
This is especially true in literary and poetic Dogrish, where word order may be greatly varied as long as the declension of nouns indicates the function of said noun within the clause. Compare:
::'''V2 word order'''
::1. Í morgonen '''gång''' jag með hynna á vísereinnt, á bryggenar '''gaf''' jag hynna en kyss á kindent
:::"In the morning<sub>DAT</sub> '''went''' I<sub>NOM</sub> with her<sub>DAT</sub> on the fields<sub>LOC</sub>, on the bridge<sub>LOC</sub> '''gave''' I<sub>NOM</sub> her<sub>DAT</sub> a kiss<sub>ACC</sub> on the cheek<sub>LOC</sub>"
::'''Poetic word order'''
::2. Í morgonen á visereinnt jag '''gång''' með hynna, á kindent jag hynna '''gaf''' á bryggenar en kyss
::: "In the morning<sub>DAT</sub> on the fields<sub>LOC</sub> I<sub>NOM</sub> '''went''' with her<sub>DAT</sub>, on the cheek<sub>LOC</sub> I<sub>NOM</sub> her<sub>DAT</sub> '''gave''' on the bridge<sub>LOC</sub> a kiss<sub>ACC</sub>"
In the standard word order, the finite verb is placed in the second position in the clause. Poetic word order, or literary word order, however, allows for the shifting of positions: in this case, the first sentence in (2) follows the SVO worder order, or subject-verb-object ("I went with her"), with the verb falling in the fourth position, whereas the second sentence follows the SOV word order, or subject-object-verb ("I her gave"), with the verb once again falling in the fourth position.
Compare this to the second phrase of the poem:
::'''V2 word order'''
::1. Hven ví '''hlejer''' sammar í sólensljós og '''skríer''' av ångar í skadyvens ryst, vinden '''röyret''' grasið
:::1. When we<sub>NOM</sub> '''laugh''' together in sunlight<sub>LOC</sub> and '''cry''' of joy<sub>GEN</sub> in the shadow's<sub>GEN</sub> shade<sub>LOC</sub>, the wind<sub>NOM</sub> '''touches''' the grass<sub>ACC</sub>
::'''Poetic word order'''
::2. Grasið vinden '''röyret''' hven sammar ví í sólensljós '''hlejer''' og av ångar '''skríer''' í skadyvens ryst
:::2. The grass<sub>ACC</sub> the wind<sub>NOM</sub> '''touches''' when together we<sub>NOM</sub> in sunlight<sub>LOC</sub> '''laugh''' and of joy<sub>GEN</sub> '''cry''' in the shadow's<sub>GEN</sub> shade<sub>LOC</sub>
Here, in (2), three separate clauses are made into one continuous one, with the secondary clause of (1) becoming a primary clause in (2) following the OSV word order "the grass the wind touches", whilst the second clause follows the SOV word order ("we in sunlight laugh") and the third clause follows the SVO word order ("[we] cry in [the] shade").
=====High-rigidity word order=====
As the number of grammatical cases is dramatically lower, Anglo-Dogrish maintains a very rigid word order.
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
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==Example texts==
==Example texts==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Dogrish proverbs
|+ Dogrish proverbs
|-
|-
Line 71: Line 818:
| Að komma á andensrupp. || ''To come at the duck's call.'' || To come right away.
| Að komma á andensrupp. || ''To come at the duck's call.'' || To come right away.
|-
|-
| Þrí veller í skógen, mörðrar ert flógen (Formal Dogrish)<br>Þrí veller í skógen, mördrer ært flógen || ''Three wells in the woods, the killer has fled'' || To run behind the facts.
| Þrí veller í skógen, mörðrar ert flógen (Formal Dogrish)<br>Þrí veller í skógen, mördrer ært flógen (Valley Dogrish) || ''Three wells in the woods, the killer has fled'' || To run behind the facts.
|}
|}


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