Saxuma/Verb Conjugation

This page details the various suffixing conjugations of Saxuma verbs. For information on other elements of Saxuma morphology, see Saxuma#Morphology.

Introduction

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

• The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
• The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
• The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
• The -JA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
• The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
• The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
• The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
• The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
• The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
• The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
• The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

In addition to the unmarked stem forms of verbs, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms.

The Negative, -NA

-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.

Sigu palas.

The rabbit runs.

Signa palas.

The rabbit does not run.

How to conjugate -NA

Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.

lesó → lesoná

enjí → enjiná

sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].

myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]

exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.

safá → sawná

ralí → rawná

-JA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append -ná.

mujú → moyná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.

ekán → ekanná

rum → rumná

sarás → sarasná

oxâ → oxāná

aw → awná

way → wayná

elér → elerná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.

enák → enawná

hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:

Negative -NA conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Negative -NA
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesoná
	Weak	sigú	signá
-SA		exí	exná
-FA		safá	sawná
-JA		mujú	moyná
-LA		ralí	rawná
-N		ekán	ekanná
-S		sarás	sarasná
-T		enák	enawná
-H		oxâ	oxāná
-W		law	lawná
-Y		way	wayná

The Causative, -BI

-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.

In sigbi palas.

He makes the rabbit run.

How to conjugate -BI

-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú

enák → enacú

hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

Causative -BI conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Causative -BI
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesobí
	Weak	sigú	sigbí
-SA		exí	exbí
-FA		safá	sawbí
-JA		mujú	moybí
-LA		ralí	rawbí
-N		ekán	ekanbí
-S		sarás	sarasbí
-T		enák	enacú
-H		oxâ	oxābí
-W		law	lawbí
-Y		way	waybí

The Inchoative, -WAY

-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.

Sigway palas.

The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.

How to Conjugate -WAY

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.

law → lawáy

ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Inchoative -WAY
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesowáy
	Weak	sigú	sigwáy
-SA		exí	exfáy
-FA		safá	sawfáy
-JA		mujú	mujwáy
-LA		ralí	rawáy
-N		ekán	ekanwáy
-S		sarás	sarasfáy
-T		enák	enawfáy
-H		oxâ	oxāfáy
-W		law	lawáy
-Y		way	waywáy

The Prospective, -KUN

-KUN, the prospective ending, indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.

Garu le ba be ohin.

She arrives at his house.'

Gaxkun le ba be ohin.

She is/was about to arrive at his house.

How to conjugate -KUN

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.

enjí → enjikún

ten → tenkún

aw → awkún

way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.

• Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.

damá → damkún

riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.

kosá → koqún

exí → eqún

kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.

ralí → rawkún

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, apply y-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -kún.

mujú → moykún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.

safá → sawqún

-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.

herúx → heruqún

sarás → saraqún

gir → giqún

enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.

oxâ → oxaqún

pē → peqún

xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Prospective -KUN
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesokún
	Weak	sigú	sigkún
-SA		exí	eqún
-FA		safá	sawqún
-JA		mujú	moykún
-LA		ralí	rawkun
-N		ekán	ekankún
-S		sarás	saraqún
-T		enák	enaqún
-H		oxâ	oxaqún
-W		law	lawkún
-Y		way	waykún

The Perfective, -W

-W, the perfective ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.

Sila kajip.

The guest leaves.

Silaw kajip.

The guest has left.

How to conjugate -W

All regular, -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.

lesó → lesô

sigú → sigû

exí → exyú

safá → safáw

kurú → kurû

ralí → ralyú

mujú → mujû

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.

ekán → ekánla

rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.

elér → elyósa

yos → yôsa

bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.

enák → enatáw

hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.

oxâ → oxáwsa

orî → oryúsa

xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.

aw → ála

ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.

way → wayú

See the summary table below.

Perfective -W conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Perfective -W
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesô
	Weak	sigú	sigû
-SA		exí	exyú
-FA		safá	safáw
-JA		mujú	mujû
-LA		ralí	ralyú
-N		ekán	ekánla
-S		sarás	saráwsa
-T		enák	enatáw
-H		oxâ	oxáwsa
-W		law	lála
-Y		way	wayú

The Habitual, -AX

-AX, the habitual ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.

Me lesó lyu don.

I read many books.

Me lesowáx lyu don.

I have been reading many books.

Mujú aska.

The fish swims.

Mujwáx aska.

Fish swim [in general].

How to conjugate -AX

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:

• Verbs with final -a append -x.
• Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
• Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
• Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.

enjí → enjiyáx

lesó → lesowáx

lewá → lewáx

ekán → ekanáx

way → wayáx

gir → giráx

saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -JA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.

ralí → ralyáx

kurú → kurwáx

wakí → wakyáx

mujú → mujwáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.

enák → enatáx

hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.

oxâ → oxaháx

mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.

maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Habitual -AX
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesowáx
	Weak	sigú	sigwáx
-SA		exí	exyáx
-FA		safá	safáx
-JA		mujú	mujwáx
-LA		ralí	ralyáx
-N		ekán	ekanáx
-S		sarás	sarasáx
-T		enák	enatáx
-H		oxâ	oxaháx
-W		law	laláx
-Y		way	wayáx

The Attributive, -LA

-LA, the attributive ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.

Mujná aska.

The fish does not swim.

Aska mujnalá sa taláw.

"The fish that is not swimming is dead.

More advanced usage of -LA is explained at Saxuma/Syntax#The attributive.

How to conjugate -LA

Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.

leso → lesolá

sigú → siglá

ekán → ekanlá

way → waylá

-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.

ralí → ralá

silá → silá

gelú → gelá

-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.

ryuláw → ryulalá

maw → malá

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.

enák → enaxá

hē → hexá

-JA verbs delete the final -CV, change apply y-ablaut, and append -lá.

mujú → moylá

-SA and -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.

exí → yosá

safá → sawsá

kurú → kūsá

-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.

oxâ → oxawsá

orî → oryusá

See the summary table below.

Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class

Class		Example Stem	Attributive -LA
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesolá
	Weak	sigú	siglá
-SA		exí	yosá
-ZA		mujú	moylá
-FA		safá	sawsá
-LA		ralí	ralá
-N		ekán	ekanlá
-S		sarás	sarawsá
-T		enák	enaxá
-H		oxâ	oxawsá
-W		law	lalá
-Y		way	waylá

Summary

Verb conjugations by class and inflection

Class		Example Stem	Negative -NA	Causative -BI	Inchoative -WAY	Prospective -KUN	Perfective -W	Habitual -AX	Attributive -LA
Regular	Strong	lesó	lesoná	lesobí	lesowáy	lesokún	lesô	lesowáx	lesolá
	Weak	sigú	signá	sigbí	sigwáy	sigkún	sigû	sigwáx	siglá
-SA		exí	exná	exbí	exfáy	eqún	exyú	exyáx	yosá
-FA		safá	sawná	sawbí	sawfáy	sawqún	safáw	safáx	sawsá
-JA		mujú	moyná	moybí	mujwáy	moykún	mujû	mujwáx	moylá
-LA		ralí	rawná	rawbí	rawáy	rawkún	ralyú	ralyáx	ralá
-N		ekán	ekanná	ekanbí	ekanwáy	ekankún	ekánla	ekanáx	ekanlá
-S		sarás	sarasná	sarasbí	sarasfáy	saraqún	saráwsa	sarasáx	sarawsá
-T		enák	enawná	enacú	enasfáy	enaqún	enatáw	enatáx	enaxá
-H		oxâ	oxāná	oxābí	oxafáy	oxaqún	oxáwsa	oxaháx	oxawsá
-W		law	lawná	lawbí	lawáy	lawkún	lála	laláx	lalá
-Y		way	wayná	waybí	waywáy	waykún	wayú	wayáx	waylá