Antarctican/Nouns

Nouns in the Antarctican language inflect for case and possession, but are not marked for number or gender.

Case

Nouns decline into three cases, Absolutive, Ergative and Comitative. Absolutive case is unmarked while the other two use vowel changes on the final vowel and/or suffixes. Nouns can also take demonstrative and possessive prefixes.

Ergative case

How this case is formed depends on the phonation and frontness of the final vowel in the word.

Modally voiced final vowel

Final vowel is a back vowel

In this case, lower the back vowel e.g.

• tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
• tãn /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative

• doleengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
• doleengon /doleːŋoɴ/ - dragon, ergative

If the final vowel is a diphthong that begins with a back vowel, then the start of the diphthong is lowered e.g.

• paehoown /pɛχoːuɴ/ - dust, absolutive
• paehõown /pɛχɔːuɴ/ - dust, ergative
• yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
• yuenpiloy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative

Final vowel is not a back vowel

In this case the ergative suffix is –n /ɴ/, or –ga /ga/ if the noun already ended in –n e.g.*zive /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

• ziven /ziɥeɴ/ - boat, ergative
• myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
• myaewntayn-ga / mʲɛuɴtaiɴga/ - mountain, ergative

Final vowel has breathy or tense voice

For nouns where the vowel of the last syllable has breathy or tense voice, the situation is more complicated. They all take ergative suffixes of the form C V ɴ, where C is a consonant and V is a vowel. V is almost always /i/, except after /t/ or /d/, when it is /u/. However it is not possible to predict C, as shown by the examples below:

• teyláae /teilɛˤː/ - shirt, absolutive
• teyláaesin /teilɛˤːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
• péy /peiˤ/ - book, absolutive
• péykin /peiˤkiɴ/ - book, ergative
• `kùe /ʱkɨʱ/ - goods, absolutive
• `kùezin /ʱkɨʱziɴ/ - goods, ergative
• `ròe /ʱʁɘʱ/ - red object, absolutive
• `ròedun /ʱʁɘʱduɴ/ – red object, ergative
• 'ków /ˤkouˤ/ - cup, absolutive
• 'kówpin */ˤkouˤpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
• péylánkáe /peiˤlaɴˤkɛˤ/ - blanket, absolutive
• péylánkáetun /peiˤlaɴˤkɛˤtuɴ/ - blanket, ergative
• wùerù /wɨʱʁuʱ/- frog, absolutive
• wùerùgin /wɨʱʁuʱgiɴ/ - frog, ergative

While it may seem that the consonant inserted before the –in (or –un) suffix is random, there are some patterns. Firstly, the inserted consonant is always an obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), and never a sonorant (nasal or approximant). Secondly, observe that, when the final vowel of the absolutive stem has tense voice, the inserted consonant is always voiceless, while if the final vowel of the absolutive stem has breathy voice, the inserted consonant is always voiced. These two rules hold across the language.

Also, for readers with knowledge of whatever language Antarctican borrowed the particular noun stem from, note that the “inserted” consonant almost perfectly corresponds with the consonant at the end of the word e.g. the word for “frog”, (wùerù /wɨʱʁuʱ/ in the absolutive case), is in fact descended from the English word “frog”. However, Antarctican does not like final consonants, so the final “g” was lost in the absolutive form. However in the ergative form, there is another vowel following the “g”, so it “reappears”, and the ergative form of the word is wùerùgin /wɨʱʁuʱgiɴ/. A similar story happens with the “t” in the word for “blanket”, which is also derived from English.

Stem changes

However, for some of the nouns with breathy or tense voice on the final vowel of the absolutive stem, there are changes in the stem when they take the ergative suffix. These involve a change in vowel phonation to modal voice, and often a change in vowel quality (as given by the table in the phonology section). e.g.

'tùen /tɨɴʱ/- wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive

'tin-gin /tiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative (not *tùen-gin)

As a rule, if the final vowel undergoes a change, and the second last vowel has the same voicing as the final vowel, then they both change e.g.

ùylòen /ʔuiʱlɘɴʱ/ - island, absolutive

oylendun /ʔoileɴduɴ/ - island, ergative (not *qùilòendun)

tùròoen /tuʱʁɘːɴʱ/ - fashionable items, absolutive

toreendun /toʁeːɴduɴ/ - fashionable items, ergative

 

If there are even more consecutive syllables with the same voicing on the vowel, then this rule applies to every single one of them e.g.

ámáeráy /ʔaˤmɛˤʁaiˤ/ - prey, absolutive

ameraeykin /ʔameʁɛikiɴ/ - prey, ergative

 

There are many, many other nouns that decline according to this pattern. Almost all of the nouns that end in /ɴ/ or contain a long vowel in the final syllable undergo vowel changes in the stem e.g.

'táen /tɛɴˤ/ - weather, absolutive

'toenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative

kàao /kɜʱː/ - membership card, absolutive

kaadun /kaːduɴ/ - membership card, ergative

However, the converse is not true. For nouns with non-modally voiced final vowels, but that do not end in /ɴ/ or a long vowel, some undergo vowel changes e.g.

ùenào /ʔɨʱnɜʱ/ - eel, absolutive

inajin /ʔinaɟiɴ/ - eel, ergative

While others do not e.g.

`kùe /ʱkɨʱ/ - goods, absolutive

`kùezin /ʱkɨʱziɴ/ - goods, ergative

 

There are some nouns that have identical absolutive forms, but are distinguished in the ergative e.g.

'ká /ˤkaˤ/ - fence, absolutive

kaechin /kɛciɴ/ - fence, ergative

ká /kaˤ/ - coconut milk, absolutive

kátlin /katɬiɴ/ coconut milk, ergative

 

Obstruent Voicing

If the absolutive form has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that separates two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if word initial), when the breathy voiced vowels acquire modal voice in the ergative form, the voiceless obstruent does too, becoming modally voiced e.g.

`pùelùe /ʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

`pàoy /ʱpɜiʱ/ - baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative

`nyùewsùeylòen /ʱɲɨuʱsɨiʱlɘɴʱ/ - New Zealand, absolutive

nyuuziilendun /ɲuːziːleɴduɴ/ - New Zealand, ergative

 

If the absolutive form of a noun has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that is preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel, and is followed by a vowel with tense voice, if this tense voiced vowel becomes modally voiced in the ergative form, then the voiceless obstruent before it acquires modal voice too e.g.

yéysitléynyéy /jeiˤsitɬeiˤɲeiˤ/ - mutton, absolutive

yéysidlinyuekin /jeiˤsidɮiɲɨkiɴ/ - mutton, ergative

Here we can see that the /tɬ/ in the absolutive form has changed to /dɮ/ in the ergative form.

For word initial voiceless obstruents followed by tense voiced vowels in the absolutive form, which change to modal voice vowels in the ergative form, sometimes this change also occurs as long as there is no tense floating phonation e.g.

támá /taˤmaˤ/- victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative

 

Sonorant Devoicing

Another similar pattern occurs in sonorants. If, in the absolutive form, they are preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel (or modal voice floating phonation if word initial), and followed by a breathy or tense voiced vowel that changes in the ergative (to have modal voice), then the sonorant becomes devoiced. /w/ becomes /f/, /l/ becomes /ɬ/, /j/ becomes /ç/, and /ʁ/ becomes /χ/, voiced nasals become prestopped e.g.

aetenàolùn /ʔɛtenɜʱluɴʱ/ - heart, absolutive

aetoetnalonzin /ʔɛtɘtnaloɴziɴ/ - heart, ergative

 

De-Ejectivisation

There are some Antarctican nouns that have ejectives in the absolutive form. As required by the phonotactics, they have tense voiced vowels both before and after (possibly with /ɴ/ intervening). However, sometimes in the ergative form, the tense voiced vowel after the ejective becomes modally voiced. In this case, the airstream mechanism changes from glottalic egressive (ejective) to pulmonic egressive (normal) e.g.

'kqów /ˤkʼouˤ/ - a small amount, absolutive

'kuhlin /ˤkuɬiɴ/ - a small amount, ergative

ráetqówléykuetu /ʁɛˤtʼoleiˤkɨtu/ - something self-limiting, absolutive

ráetoluekuetu /ʁɛˤtolɨkɨtu/ something self-limiting, ergative

'kéychqéy /ˤkeiˤcʼeiˤ/ - a female name, absolutive

'kéychuekin /ˤkeiˤcɨkiɴ/ - a female name, ergative

 

Comitative Case

How this is formed also depends on the frontness and phonation of the final vowel:

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice

Last Vowel of Abs. Form is not a Back Vowel

In this case, take the absolutive form, raise /a/ to /ɛ/ and centralise any other front vowels e.g.

zive /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

zivoe /ziɥɘ/ - boat, comitative

myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive

myaewntaeyn /mʲɛuɴtɛiɴ/ - mountain, comitative

agirey /ʔagiʁei/ - agreement, absolutive

agiroey /ʔagiʁɘi/ - agreement, comitative

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form is a Back Vowel

In this case, take the absolutive form, and suffix /pmu/ e.g.

tõn /tɔɴ/- change (as in coins, money), absolutive

tõnpmu /tɔɴpmu/ - change (as in coins, money), comitative

doleengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive

doleengunpmu /doleːŋuɴpmu/ - dragon, comitative

paehoown /pɛχoːuɴ/ - dust, absolutive

paehoownpmu /pɛχoːuɴpmu/ - dust, comitative

yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, absolutive

yuenpiluypmu - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, comitative

 

Other Cases

If the last vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the comitative is formed differently. Here, it is formed by taking the ergative, deleting any final /ɴ/ or /ga/ that had been inserted as a suffix, and then suffixing /ʔu/ e.g.

'tùen /ˤtɨɴʱ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive

'tin-gin /ˤtiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative

'tin-gi-u /ˤtiɴgiˤu/ - wound caused by a sting, comitative

teyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive

teyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative

teyláaesi-u /teilɛʔːsiˤu/ - shirt, comitative

péy /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive

péykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative

péyki-u /peiʔkiˤu/ - book, comitative

`kùe /ʱkɨʱ/ - goods, absolutive

`kùezin /ʱkɨʱziɴ/ - goods, ergative

`kùezi-u /ʱkɨʱziʔu/ - goods, comitative

`ròe /ʱʁɘʱ/ - red object, absolutive

`ròedun /ʱʁɘʱduɴ/ – red object, ergative

`ròedu-u /ʱʁɘʱduʔu/ – red object, comitative

'ków /ˤkouˤ/ - cup, absolutive

'kówpin /ˤkouˤpiɴ/ - cup, ergative

'kówpi-u /ˤkouˤpiʔu/ - cup, comitative

péyláenkáe /peiˤlɛɴˤkɛˤ/ - blanket, absolutive

péyláenkáetun /peiˤlɛɴˤkɛˤtuɴ/ - blanket, comitative

péyláenkáetu-u /peiˤlɛɴˤkɛˤtuʔu/ - blanket, ergative

wùerù /wɨʱʁuʱ/ - frog, absolutive

wùerùgin /wɨʱʁuʱgiɴ/ - frog, ergative

wùerùgiqu /wɨʱʁuʱgiʔu/ - frog, comitative

 

Pronominal Possession

Where English would use possessive pronouns (“my”, “your”), Antarctican uses possessive prefixes. The base forms of each are listed in the table below:

Prefix	Usage
myi- /mʲi/	1st person singular, 1st person exclusive plural
yew- /jeu/	1st person inclusive plural
te- /te/	2nd person
wa- /wa/	3rd person, topicalised
si- /si/	3rd person, non-topicalised

So, in the absolutive case, “my frog” or “our frog” (not including you) would be myiwùerù /mʲiwɨʱʁuʱ/, “your frog” would be tiwùerù /tiwɨʱʁuʱ/ etc.

 

Phonation Spreading

However, if the noun has a floating phonation, this will spread onto the prefix, and often cause a vowel change in it as well (see the table in the phonology section for a list of changes) e.g.

`pùelùe /ʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - bridge, absolutive

`myùepùelùe /ʱmʲɨʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - my bridge, absolutive (not *myipùelùe)

tùepùelùe /tɨʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - your bridge, absolutive (not *tipùelùe)

Loss of Floating Phonation

However, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel changes to no longer have breathy or tense voice (i.e. it now has modal voice), then, if the floating phonation was the same as the what used to be on the vowel, then it is lost too e.g.

`pùelùe /ʱpɨʱlɨʱ/- bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

`myùepùelùe /ʱmʲɨʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - my bridge, absolutive

myibilidlin /mʲibilidɮiɴ/ - my bridge, ergative

 

There are two exceptions to the above rule. The first is if the word begins with an ejective, in which case the ejectiveness is lost, but the floating phonation remains e.g.

'kqów /ˤkʼouˤ/ - a small amount, absolutive

'kuhlin /kuɬiɴ/ - a small amount, ergative

'myéykuhlin /mʲeiˤkuɬiɴ/ - my small amount, ergative

The second is for words that begin with consonant pronounced with breathy voice (voiced consonant before a breathy voiced vowel) e.g.

`byùe /ʱbʲɨʱ/ - mouth, absolutive

`byijin /ʱbʲiɟiɴ/ - mouth, ergative

`myùebyùe /ʱmʲɨʱbʲɨʱ/ - my mouth, absolutive

`myùebyijin /ʱmʲɨʱbʲiɟiɴ/ - my mouth, ergative

Prediction of Floating Phonation

As a rule, whether or not a noun has floating phonation cannot be predicted. The only time when it is possible to do so is for absolutive nouns, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel loses its breathy or tense phonation and becomes modally voiced. In this case, the rules are given below:

 

Sonorant Initial Stem

If the absolutive stem begins with a sonorant (nasal or approximant), and that sonorant becomes devoiced when the vowel after it acquires modal voice in the ergative form, then there is only ever modal floating phonation before it in both cases e.g.

màao /mɜʱː/ - betel nut, absolutive

pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative

myimàao /mʲimɜʱː/ - my betel nut, absolutive

Otherwise, if a word begins with a sonorant, then it always has floating phonation that is the same as that on the first vowel e.g.

'máláeyáae /ˤmaˤlɛˤjɛːˤ/ - manners, absolutive

maleyooetun /malejɘːtuɴ/ - manners, ergative

'myéymáláeyáae /ˤmʲeiˤmaˤlɛˤjɛːˤ/ - my manners, absolutive

 

Stem starts with /s/

If the absolutive stem begins with /s/, it can never have tense floating phonation e.g.

sásaechin /saˤsɛciɴ/ - stab wound, absolutive

myisásaechin /mʲisaˤsaɛciɴ/ - my stab wound, absolutive

 

In the case of absolutive nouns with breathy voice on the first vowel, if, in the ergative form, the initial /s/ becomes voiced /z/, then the word has breathy floating phonation e.g.

`sàomùe /ʱsɜʱmɨʱ/ - (major) wife, absolutive

zamibyin /zamibʲiɴ/ - (major) wife, ergative

`myùesàomùe /ʱmʲɨʱsɜʱmɨʱ/ - my (major) wife, absolutive (not *myisàomùe)

But if, in the ergative form, the first vowel acquires modal voice but the initial consonant stays as voiceless /s/, then in both the absolutive form and the ergative, there is floating modal phonation e.g.

sàopyùe /sɜʱpʲɨʱ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive

sabyishin /sabʲiçiɴ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), ergative

myisàopyùe /mʲisɜʱpʲɨʱ/ - my speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive

 

Other stems

If the absolutive stem begins with another obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative) followed by a vowel with tense voice, and that obstruent stays voiceless even when followed by a modally voiced vowel (in the ergative form), then the absolutive form has tense floating phonation e.g.

'táen /tɛɴˤ/ - weather, absolutive

toenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative

'myéytáen /ˤmʲeiˤtɛɴˤ/ - my weather, absolutive

But if the obstruent becomes voiced, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.

támá /taˤmaˤ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damaɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative

myitámá /mʲitaˤmaˤ/ - my victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

 

And vice versa, if the absolutive form of a noun begins with a voicless obstruent followed by a breathy voiced vowel, and that vowel becomes voiced in the ergative form, then the absolutive form has floating breathy phonation e.g.

`pùelùe /ʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

`myùepùelùe /ʱmʲɨʱpɨʱlɨʱ/ - my bridge, absolutive

`pàoy /ʱpɜiʱ/- baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative

`myùepàoy /ʱmʲɨʱpɜiʱ/ - my baby, absolutive

 

And if the obstruent stays voiceless in the ergative form, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.

pàoy /pɜiʱ/ - page, absolutive

paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative

myipàoy /mʲipɜiʱ/ - my page, absolutive

 

Nasalisation of Velar Initials

For some nouns that begin with /k/ or /g/, often it changes to /ŋ/ when the noun takes a prefix. e.g.

gali /gali/ - hole, absolutive

myingali /mʲiŋali/ - my hole, absolutive

 

In such a case, if the first vowel has tense or breathy voice, then it also has a floating phonation that is the same e.g.

`kùe /ʱkɨʱ/ - goods, absolutive

`myùengùe /ʱmʲɨʱŋɨʱ/ - my goods, absolutive

'kéyváy /ˤkeiˤɥaiˤ/ - tongue, absolutive

'myéyngéyváy /ˤmʲeiˤŋeiˤɥaiˤ/ - my tongue, absolutive

 

Possession by a Noun

Antarctican distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. Both are marked with prefixes on the possessed noun. These are wey- for alienable possession and nu- for inalienable possession (the possessor always takes the absolutive case). Note that floating phonation affects these prefixes in the same way as any other:

`kùeràotùu /ʱkɨʱʁɜʱtuʱː/ - bone, absolutive

yini /jini/ - dog, absolutive

`wòeykùeràotùu yini /ʱwɘiʱkɨʱʁɜʱtuʱː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, alienable (i.e. the one that it eats, buries etc.)

`nùkùeràotùu yini /ʱnuʱkɨʱʁɜʱtuʱː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, inalienable (i.e. the one that is a part of it)

 

Where English would compound nouns together, or use one to modify another. Antarctican uses the alienable possessive construction e.g.

aaehaan /ʔɛːχaːɴ/ - food, absolutive

wey-aaehaan yini /weiʔɛːχaːɴ jini/ - dog food, absolutive

Reciprocal Possession

In Antarctican, there is no singular vs. plural marking. However, some nouns that imply a relationship (e.g. friend, brother, enemy, coworker), have special forms to indicate a pair or group of people / things where that relationship is reciprocal e.g. where English would say “They are friends / brothers / enemies / coworkers (of each other)”.

These forms are generally constructed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, in the same “slot” where possession would be marked e.g.

biraza /biʁaza/ - brother, absolutive

bibiraza /bibiʁaza/ - brothers (of each other), absolutive

yeruy /jeʁui/ - ally, absolutive

yeyeruy /jejeʁui/ - allies (of each other), absolutive

 

However, the inserted syllable cannot have a long vowel, a diphthong, or end in /ɴ/. If it would do so then it is truncated e.g.

doolaa /doːlaː/ - coworker, absolutive

dodoolaa /dodoːlaː/ - coworkers (of each other), absolutive

nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive

nanayba /nanaiba/ - neighbours (of each other), absolutive

'kówntátu /ˤkouɴˤtaˤtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive

'kókówntátu /ˤkoˤkouɴˤtaˤtu/– acquaintances (of each other), absolutive

 

The voicing of the vowel of the reduplication is determined by what floating phonation the noun has e.g.

sátozii /saˤtoziː/ – enemy, absolutive

myisátozii /mʲisaˤtoziː/ – my enemy, absolutive

sasátozii /sasaˤtoziː/ - enemies (of each other), absolutive

`rùy /ʱʁuiʱ/- rival, absolutive

`myùerùy /ʱmʲɨʱʁuiʱ/ - my rival, absolutive

`rùrùy /ʱʁuʱʁuiʱ/ - rivals (of each other), absolutive

firendun /fiʁeɴduɴ/ – friend, ergative

myuefirendun /mʲɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – my friend, ergative

fuefirendun /fɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – friends (of each other), ergative

 

A few nouns have irregular reciprocal possessive forms e.g.

wùeròen /wɨʱʀɘɴʱ/ - friend, absolutive

fiwùeròen /fiwɨʱʀɘɴʱ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive

These arise from when the first vowel has breathy or tense voice, but the first consonant is underlyingly a voiced obstruent or a prestopped nasal. These can only occur before modally voiced vowels, and are thus modified before the vowel with breathy or tense voice. But if word has floating modal phonation, then the vowel there will have modal voice and the underlying consonant will surface there.