Thangha'

Thangha' is another language spoken in my far future Antarctic conworld (after runaway global warming has melted most of the ice but made most of the rest of the world uninhabitable). It is spoken by nomads who inhabit the centre of the continent.. Because each group of nomads speak their own dialect, Thangha' is a Pluricentric language. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Thangha's has become a lingua franca across much of East Antarctica (through other ethnic groups trading with the nomads). To give an example of the diversity, the initial consonant in the name of the language can be pronounced as [tˤ], [θˤ], [θ], [tθˤ], or [tʰ]. The consonant that begins the second syllable is usually prononuced [x] or [χ], but a few dialects pronounce it as as [ħ] or [h].

Like many other Antarctican languages (but definitely not all), Thangha' is descended from English. However, many ancestors of Thangha' speakers came from the Philippines, Indonesia and the Pacifc (these areas were the first to be severely affected by global warming), and the language is heavily influenced by Austronesian languages, most notably in its split ergative alignment. But it also borrowed heavily from Hindi and various Chinese dialects. This is a similar story to Kämpya, except that speakers of the two languages were largely isolated from each other for two thousand years, meaning that they are no longer mutually intelligible.

Phonology

Vowels

In stressed syllables, most dialects distinguish 5 plain oral vowels /a/, /iː/, /uː/, /e/, /o/ and two nasal vowels /aⁿ/ and /əⁿ/. The difference between /iː/ vs. /e/ is more dependent on length than height. For example, a short [i] is more likely to be heard as /e/ than /iː/, and a long /eː/ is more likely to be heard as /iː/ than /e/. The back vowels /uː/ and /o/ are similar in this regard.

In unstressed syllables, the plain oral vowels /iː/, /uː/, /e/ and /o/ (i.e. all of the plain oral vowels except /a/) merge to /ə/ (which is still distinct from /əⁿ/.

In non-word final syllables, it is very common for nasal vowels to unpackinto a sequence of oral vowel + nasal consonant (which is homorganic with the following consonant). For example, the vowel of the first syllable in the language name Thangha' is phonemically /aⁿ/, but is usually heard as [aŋ] (or [aɴ] for speakers who use a uvular fricative instead of a velar fricative).

Consonants

There is considerable variation between dialects here:

	Labial	Pal. Labial	Pharyn. Labial	Laminal	Pharyn. Alveolar	Lab. Dental	Alveolo-Palatal	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Lab. Palatal	Lab. Velar	Lab. Uvular	Glottal
Nasal	m	mʲ	mˤ	n		nʷ		ɳ	ɲ	ŋ		ɲʷ	ŋʷ
Voiced Stop	b	bʲ	bˤ	d	dˤ	dʷ			ɟ	g		ɟʷ	gʷ ~ gw ~ gb
Voiceless Stop	p	pʲ	pˤ	t	tˤ	tʷ			c	k	q	cʷ	kʷ ~ kw ~ kp	qʷ ~ kf ~ qp	ʔ
Voiced Affricate				dz			dʑ	ɖʐ
Voiceless Affricate				ts			tɕ	ʈʂ
Voiced Fricative				z	zˤ	zʷ	ʑ
Voiceless Fricative	f	fʲ	fˤ	s	sˤ	sʷ	ɕ	ʂ	ç ~ ɬ	x ~ χ ~ ħ ~ h
Flap / Trill							ɾʲ	ɽ			ʀ			ʀʷ ~ ⱱ
Lateral									ʎ		ɫ	ʎʷ		ɫʷ
Semivowel									j			ɥ	w

The uvular trill is most commonly pronounced as an approximant [ʁ].

A few dialects merge the aspirated dental consonant into the voiceless alveolar affricate. In these dialects, Thangha' would be pronounced [ˈtsaŋxaʔ].

Some dialects merge /ɫʷ/ into /ɫ/.

Labialised labial consonants /mʷ/, /bʷ/, /pʷ/ (and sometimes /fʷ/~/ɸ/) occur as separate phonemese in a few dialects. But most dialects have merged these with the plain labials.

Except for flaps, all sonorant consonants have plain and glottalised forms e.g. [m] vs. [m̰], [w] vs. [w̰] etc. However, these can be analysed as sequences of glottal stop + sonorant e.g. /m/ vs. /ʔm/, /w/ vs. /ʔw/ etc.

Except for the semivowels /j/, /ʔj/, /ɥ/, /ʔɥ/, /w/, /ʔw/, plain and glottalised sonorants are in free variation word initially. In emphatic pronunciation they are always pronounced glottalised, and otherwise they are not. This analysis treats them as being glottalised underlyingly.

Velar nasals /ŋ/ and /ŋʷ/ cannot occur word initially.

Stress and Tone

There is both a stress and a tone system, which interact with each other.

Stress falls on either the last or the second last syllable of a word. The stressed syllable is pronounced louder than unstressed syllables. The pitch depends on the tone.

Tone is assigned at the word level, rather than to individual syllables. There are three phonemic tones, High, Low and Falling.

Words with High Tone have high pitch on all syllables other the stressed syllable, which is pronounced with even higher pitch e.g. /waˈjəʔma/ (H) - "llama" (genitive) is pronounced [wɞ́ˈjɪ̋ʔmá], /tɕaˈbˤaⁿ/ (H) - "Japan" is pronounced [tɕɐ́ˈbˤɑ̋ⁿ].

Words with Low Tone have mid pitch on all syllables other than the stressed syllable, which is pronounced with an extra low pitch e.g. /waˈməwaⁿ/ (L) - "mountain" (genitive) is pronounced [wāˈmʊ̏wāⁿ].

Words with Falling Tone always have stress on the second last syllable. Their pronunciation depends on the vowel length of the stressed vowel. If the vowel is short and non-nasalised, there is high pitch on all syllables up to and including the stressed syllable, and low pitch on the final syllable e.g./tsaˈɲeɳə/ (HL) - "channel", "strait" is pronounced [tsǽˈɲéɳʌ̀]. However, if the stressed vowel is long or nasalised, then it has falling pitch e.g. /waˈbiːdˤə/ (HL) - "boat" (genitive) is pronounced [wáˈbêːdˤʌ̀].

Phonotactics

Only CCV syllables are permitted. Furthermore, the range of permissible clusters is extremely restricted, being limited to /ʔ/ + Sonorant (other than flaps), /pf/, /bf/ (heard as [bv], /pɕ/, /bʑ/, /tf/, /df/ (heard as [dv]), /kf/ and /kɕ/.

Vowel Allophony

The vowels of Thangha' have a number of different allophones depending on what consonants they are adjacent to. These are described in the table below. Note that a "lowering" consonant is defined as a pharyngealised, retroflex or uvular consonant (labialised or non-labialised, including /ɫ/). If two sounds are listed, the first occurs in stressed syllables, and the second in unstressed syllables:

Phoneme	/a/	/iː/	/uː/	/e/	/o/	/aⁿ/	/əⁿ/	/ə/
Default	[a]	[iː]	[uː]	[e]	[o]	[aⁿ]	[əⁿ]	[ə]
Adjacent to a Palatal or Palatalised Consonant	[æ]	[iː]	[ʉː]	[i]	[ɵ]	[ɛⁿ]	[eⁿ]	[ɪ]
Adjacent to a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised)	[ɑ]	[eː]	[oː]	[ɛ]	[ɔ]	[ɑⁿ]	[ʌⁿ]	[ʌ]
Adjacent to a Labialised Consonant (Non-Lowering)	[a]	[yː]	[uː]	[ø]	[u]	[aⁿ]	[oⁿ]	[ʊ]
Adjacent to a Labialised Uvular Consonant	[ɒ]	[øː]	[oː]	[œ]	[o]	[ɒⁿ]	[ɔⁿ]	[ɔ]
Between a Lowering Consonant and a Labialised Consonant	[ɒ]	[øː]	[oː]	[œ]	[o]	[ɒⁿ]	[ɔⁿ]	[ɔ]
Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Labialised Consonant (Non-Lowering)	[ɞ]	[yː]	[ʉː]	[y]	[ʉ]	[œⁿ]	[øⁿ]	[ʏ]
Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Labialised Uvular Consonant	[ɐ]	[øː]	[oː]	[ø]	[o]	[ɐⁿ]	[əⁿ]	[ɵ]
Between a Palatal / Palatalised Consonant, and a Lowering Consonant (Non-Labialised)	[ɐ]	[eː]	[oː]	[e]	[o]	[ɐⁿ]	[əⁿ]	[ɘ]

Nouns

Any Thangha' adjective can be used as a noun, and vice verca, any noun can be used as an adjective (which come before the head noun when used attributively, like English). For example, /ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [ˈsandə] can mean either "sand" or "sandy".

Plurals

Additive Plural

This is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, except that the vowel is changed to schwa e.g. /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) [ˈjǽm̰à] - "llama" -> /jə-ˈjama/ (HL) [jɪ́ˈjǽm̰à] - "llamas". However, in Thangha', pluralisation is optional. So /ˈjəʔma/ (HL) could mean either "llama" or "llamas". In general, the plural is only used to emphasise that there is a large number / quantity of something. It can even be used for uncountable nouns e.g. /ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [ˈsândə̀] - sand (from a desert, Thangha' has a different word for beach sand) -> /sə-ˈsaⁿdə/ (HL) [sə́ˈsândə̀] - "large amount of desert sand / dune sea".

Associative Plural

Distinct from the additive plural, this means "X and company", "X and his/her mob" etc. (similar to Japanese -tachi). It is formed by prefixing /ɫʷatə-/ to the noun e.g.

/ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) - [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" (from English "doctor") -> /ɫʷatə-ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) - [ɫʷɒ̄tʊ̄ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] - "the shaman and his lot"

Note that this is distinct from the additive plural discussed before. /tʷəˈtʷoʀa/ (L) refers to a group of shamans, while /ɫʷatə-ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) refers to a shaman with a group of other people associated with him (who by no means need to be shamans, and could well be the shaman's assistants or followers).

Case

Thangha' has three cases, Absolutive (unmarked), Genitive (marked with the prefix /wa-), and Ergative (marked with the prefix /bə-/).

e.g. /ˈməsa/ (H) - [ˈmə̋sá] - "mother" -> /wa-ˈməsa/ (H) - [wáˈmə̋sá] - "of the mother" -> /bə-ˈməsa/ (H) - [bə́ˈmə̋sá]

However, if the noun root begins with a voiceless obstruent, it becomes voiced e.g. /ˈtʷoʀa/ (L) [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" -> /waˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [wāˈdʷòʀɑ̀] - "of the shaman" (not */waˈyʷoʀa/ (L)) -> /bə-ˈdʷoʀa/ (L) [bə̄ˈdʷòʀɑ̄] - "shaman" (ergative).

Possession

Like most Antarctican languages, Thangha' uses different constructions for alienable and inalienable possession.

Inalienable Possession

In this case, the word order is Possessed - Possessor, with the Possessor marked with the genitive case e.g.

/ˈpəʔwəⁿ wa-ˈdʷogə/ (HL) (HL)

[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ wá-ˈdʷúgə̀]

bone GEN-dog

The dog's bone (in it's body)

Alienable Possession

The construction for alienable possession is the same as that for alienable possession, except that the possessor is marked with the Ergative case e.g.

/ˈpəʔwəⁿ bə-ˈdʷogə/ (HL) (HL)

[ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀]

bone ERG-dog

The dog's bone (that it is chewing / burying etc.)

Demonstratives

Like English, Thangha' makes a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives, and there is no distinction between pronominal demonstratives and adnominal demonstratives (which precede the noun, like in English). Unlike English, there is no singular vs. plural contrast in demonstratives:

This / These: /ˈɕəsə/ (HL) [ˈɕɪ́sə̀]

That / Those: /ˈsazə/ (HL) [ˈsázə̀]

Prepositional Clitics

In Thangha', prepositions are clitics that attach phonologically to the following word (whether that is a noun, demonstrative, numeral or adjective). The pronunciation of the last vowel in a preposition is affected by the first consonant in the following word e.g.

/ʔɲəʀə/ [ɲ̰ɘʀʌ] - "near"

/ˈɕəsə/ (HL) [ˈɕɪ́sə̀] - "this one"

/ʔɲəʀə=ˈɕəsə/ (HL) [ɲ̰ɘ́ʀɘ́ˈɕɪ́sə̀] - "near to this one" (not *[ɲ̰ɘ́ʀʌ́ˈɕɪ́sə̀]).

Pronouns

Thangha' borrowed its pronouns from Austronesian languages, and makes a distinction between inclusive and exclusive "we". Unlike the rest of the language which has ergative-absolutive alignment, pronouns have Fluid-S Alignment. In transitive sentences, subjects have the agentive case, while objects have the patientive case e.g.

/ˈʔəkfa ʎə-ˈbedˤə qaˈɲəʔja/ (H) (HL) (H)

[ʔə̋kfá ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ qɐ́ˈɲɪ́j̰æ̀]

1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-bite 3PS.PAT

I was biting him/her/them.

However, in intransitive sentences, pronominal subjects only have the agentive case if they perform the action of their own free will e.g.

/ˈʔəkfa ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə/ (H) (HL)

[ʔə̋kfá m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀]

1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall

I dropped to the ground (deliberately, e.g. to duck a bullet)

If the action is involitional, pronominal subjects of an intransitive verb take the patientive case e.g.

/ˈʔaɟəⁿ ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə/ (H) (HL)

[ˈʔæ̋ɟèⁿ m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀]

1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall

I fell to the ground (by accident)

The various pronouns are listed in the table below:

	Agentive	Patientive	Genitive
1PS Singular	/ˈʔəkfa/ (H)/ [ˈʔə̋kfá] (H)]	/ˈʔaɟəⁿ/ (HL) [ˈʔæ̋ɟèⁿ]	/kfo/ (H) [kfő]
1PS Plural Exclusive	/qaˈmʲə/ (L) [qɐ̄ˈmʲɪ̏]	/ˈʔəʔmʲəⁿ/ (L) [ˈʔɪm̰ʲeⁿ]	/ˈʔnəʔmʲəⁿ/ (L) [ˈn̰ɪm̰ʲeⁿ]
1PS Plural Inclusive	/ˈtˤəɥa/ (H) [ˈtˤø̋ɥɞ́]	/ˈʔətsəⁿ/ (HL) [ˈʔə̋tsə́ⁿ] (HL)	/ˈʔnətsəⁿ/ (HL) [ˈn̰ə̋tsə́ⁿ]
2PS Singular	/ʔjəˈqo/ (H) [j̰ɘ́ˈqɔ̋]	/ʔjəˈʔɥo/ (H) [j̰ʏ́ˈɥ̰ʉ̋]	/ʔmo/ (H) [m̰ő]
2PS Plural / Polite	/qəˈʔɥo/ (H) [qǿˈɥ̰ʉ̋]	/ʔjəˈʔɲʷo/ (H) [̰jʏ́ˈɲ̰ʷʉ̋]	/ʔnəˈʔɲʷo/ (H) [̰n̰ʏ́ˈɲ̰ʷʉ̋]
3PS	/ˈɕəʔja/ (H) [ˈɕɪ́j̰æ̀]	/qaˈɲəʔja/ (H) [qɐ́ˈɲɪ́j̰æ̀]	/ˈʔɲəʔja/ (H) [ˈɲ̰ɪ́j̰æ̀]
Reflexive	N/A	/ˈɕeɳə/ (HL) [ˈɕéɳʌ̀]	/waⁿ/ (L) [wȁⁿ]
Reciprocal	N/A	/ˈɕaⁿkfə/ (HL) [ˈɕǽŋkfə̀]	/ˈtəʔʎə/ (HL) [ˈtɪ́ʎ̰ɪ̀]

The genitive pronouns are used for both alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, they precede the noun they possess e.g. /kfo ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (HL) [kfő ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] - "my bone" (either in my body, or in my possession).

The second person plural pronouns can also be used to refer to a single person, if the speaker desires to express respect to that person. This is similar to French tu vs. vous.

The reflexive patientive pronoun is used where English would say "myself", "yourself" etc. For example:

/bə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕeɳə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)

[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕéɳʌ̀]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.PAT

The dog was biting itself.

The reflexive genitive pronoun is used where English would say "my own", "your own" etc. For example:

/bə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə wȁⁿ ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (HL)

[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ waⁿ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite REFL.GEN bone

The dog was biting its own bone.

The reciprocal patientive pronoun is used where English would say "each other" or "one another". For example:

/bə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈɕaⁿkfə/ (HL) (HL) (HL)

[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈɕǽŋkfə̀]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT

The dogs were biting each other.

The reciprocal genitive pronoun is used where English would say "each other's" or "one another's". For example:

/bə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈtəʔʎə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) (HL)

[bʊ́ˈdʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈtɪ́ʎ̰ɪ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite RECP.PAT bone

The dogs were biting each other's bones.

Verbs

All verb conjugation is done using prefixes. Verbs do not inflect for tense or mood, but Telicity plays a central role in verb conjugation. Verbs can also be inflected into a number of different grammatical voices:

Voice	Telic	Atelic	Negative	Prohibitive
Default	mʲaɲəʔ-	ʎə-	na-	dʷaⁿ-
Antipassive	mʲaⁿma-	ʎama-	nama-	N/A
Benefactive Applicative	mʲaɲəʔka-	ʎəka-	naka-	dʷaⁿka-
Instrumental Applicative	mʲaɲəʔpaⁿ-	ʎəpaⁿ-	napaⁿ-	dʷaⁿpaⁿ--

The prohibitive forms are used to give negative commands e.g.

/dʷaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[dʷamˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

PROH-bite bone.ABS

Don't bite the bone.

Default Voice

Transitive Sentences

For transitive sentences, the most common word order is [Subject] Verb [Direct Object] [Prepositional Objects] e.g.

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS

The dog was biting a / the bone.

Note that this construction is only used when a) the subject is definite (where English would use "the") and b) the subject is not topicalised (i.e. in cases where Japanese would use "ga" and not "wa"). See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic_and_comment, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic-prominent_language and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_grammar#Topic.2C_theme.2C_and_subject:_.E3.81.AF_wa_and_.E3.81.8C_ga.

Subject Topicalisation

In transitive sentences where the subject is definite and is also topicalised (i.e. in a case where English would mark it with "the" , and Japanese would mark it with "wa"), the subject takes the absolutive case e.g.

/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS

The dog was biting a / the bone.

This sentence differs from the previous one (which has the ergative marker -ɟa) in that, without -ɟa, it simply describes the dog and what it is doing, whereas with -ɟa, it is more likely to be an answer to a question (overt or implied) asking something like "Who / What was biting the bone?"

Object Topicalisation

Objects of such transitive sentences can be topicalised by moving them to the front of the sentence (this precludes subject topicalisation, a sentence can only have one topic). This is usually used in situations where English would use the passive voice e.g.

/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/

[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]

bone.ABS dog-ERG ATEL-bite

The bone was being bitten by the dog.

Subject Deletion

Thangha' is a Pro-drop language. In particular, it is common to delete the subject of transitive sentences if it is obvious from the context e.g.

/ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

ATEL-bite bone.ABS

It (or he/she/they) was biting a / the bone.

Intransitive Sentences

In intransitive sentences, word order depends on whether the subject is a pronoun, or a full noun phrase

Full Noun Phrases

In this case, subjects come before the verb if they are topicalised e.g.

/ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

shaman TEL-fall

The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the shaman did)

If the subject is not topicalised, it comes after the verb e.g.

/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]

TEL-fall shaman

The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground)

Pronouns

In intransitive sentences, subject pronouns always come before the verb e.g.

/ˈʔəʔkʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

1PS.SG.AGT TEL-fall

I dropped to the ground.

This applies even if the subject pronoun is in the patientive case (to indicate that the action was involitional) e.g.

/ˈʔacəⁿ mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[ˈʔæceⁿ mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

1PS.SG.PAT TEL-fall

I fell to the ground (by accident)

Subject Deletion

As with transitive sentences, subjects of intransitive sentences can be freely deleted if they are obvious from context e.g.

/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

TEL-fall

I/you/he/... fell to the ground.

Ditransitive Verbs

The subject of a ditranstive verb takes the ergative case, and both the direct and indirect objects take absolutive case. However, the indirect object is also marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.

/ˈʔəkːʷa mʲaɲəʔ-ˈdena baⁿ dəʔ=ˈdʷoʁəʔ/

[ˈʔʊkːʷa mʲæɲɪ-ˈdːena baⁿ dʊˈdːʷɔʁʌʔ]

1PS.SG.AGT TEL-give bone DAT=dog

I gave a bone to the dog.

Antipassive Voice

This is only applicable to transitive verbs. It deletes the object of the verb, and places the subject of the verb in the absolutive case. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice. The situation when it is used depends on whether the subject of the verb is a full noun phrase or a pronoun.

Full Noun Phrases

There are two specific usages of the antipassive when the subject is a full noun phrase. One is in gnomic utterances, and the other is to indicate that the subject of a transitive sentence is indefinite

Gnomic Utterances

To talk about general truths, the antipassive is used, with the subject occuring before the verb e.g.

/ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ]

dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite

Dogs bite.

The object of the sentence can resurface after verb, marked with the dative prepositional clitic /dəʔ/ e.g.

/ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎæmaˈbetəʔ dəˈbːaⁿ]

dog.ABS ANTIP.ATEL-bite DAT=bone

Dogs bite bones.

Indefinite Subjects

The default voice can only be used for transitive verbs if the subject is definite. If the subject is indefinite, then the verb is antipassivised, and the subject reappears after the verb e.g.

/ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ/

[ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]

ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS

A dog was biting (me / you / him / her / it ...)

As with before, the object of the sentence can be placed at the end, marked with /dəʔ/ e.g.

/ʎama-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷoʁəʔ dəʔ=baⁿ/

[ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ dəˈbːaⁿ]

ANTIP.ATEL-bite dog.ABS DAT=bone

A dog was biting the bone.

Pronominal Subjects

Transitive verbs with pronomninal subjects are antipassivised in two cases:

Object De-Emphasis

If the subject of a transitive verb is a pronoun, and it is considered to be more integral to the action being performed than the object, then the verb is antipassivised e.g.

/jəʔˈko mʲaⁿma-ˈsuːfəʔ/

[jɪˈkːo mʲæmma-ˈsuːfəʔ]

2PS.SG.AGT ANTIP.TEL-rescue

You saved it / him / her (with an feeling that only the listener could have performed the rescue)

If the verb does not take the antipassive i.e. /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈsuːfəʔ/, there is no nuance that the rescue was only something that the listener could have performed.

Involitional Action

If a transitive verb has a pronominal subject that performs the action involitionally, then the verb is antipassivised and the subject takes the patientive case e.g.

/ˈkəʔɲəʔ ʎama-ˈbetəʔ/

[ˈkɪʔɲɪʔ ʎæma-ˈbetəʔ]

3PS.PAT ANTIP.ATEL-bite

He/she/they was/were biting (with a nuance that the biting was uncontrallable, maybe they had rabies or were zombified or in an uncontrollable rage etc.)

Benefactive Applicative Voice

Thi sused to highlight the beneficiary of an action. It can apply to intransitive verbs i.e. changing the sentence "A did something" into "A did something for B". It can also apply to transtive verbs i.e. changing the sentence "A did something to X" into "A did something to X for B". In both cases, the orginial absolutive argument of the verb is shifted to the end of the sentence, and is marked with the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/. For example, if we take the following intransitive sentence:

/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈcçada/

[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ ˈcçæda]

TEL-fall shepherd.ABS

A shepherd dropped down.

The above sentence can take the applicative voice to become.

/mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta dəʔ=ˈcçada/

[mʲæɲɪkːaˈpfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa dɪˈcːçæda]

TEL.APPL-fall shaman.ABS DAT=shepherd

A shepherd dropped down for the shaman (maybe prostrating himself).

Either /ˈdʷokəʔta/ - "shaman" or /dəʔ=ˈcçada/ - "shepherd" (dative) can be topicalised (moving to before the verb). Both can be deleted if they are obvious from context. So /mʲaɲəʔka-ˈpfaɫəʔ/ could stand as a sentence by itself.

Below is an example of applying the applicative voice to a transitive verb:

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/

dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS

A dog was biting the shaman.

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəka-ˈbetəʔ ˈcçada dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪkaˈbetəʔ ˈcçæda dʊˈdːʷukətːa/

dog-ERG ATEL.BEN.APPL-bite shepherd.ABS DAT=shaman

A dog was biting the shaman for the shepherd (maybe the shepherd ordered it to attack the boss).

Instrumental Applicative Voice

This functions in a similar way to the benefactive applicative voice. The noun that would normally take the plain absolutive case (i.e. the subject of an intransitive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb) goes to the end of the sentence and takes the prepositional clitic /dəʔ/. Whatever the subject used to complete the action takes the absolutive case, and is not marked with a preposition e.g.

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ dʷukətːa/

dog-ERG ATEL-bite shaman.ABS

A dog was biting the shaman.

becomes

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎəpaⁿ-ˈbetəʔ ɲəʔ ˈʂapəʔ ˈdaⁿtəʔ dəʔ=ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪpam-ˈbetəʔ ɲɪʔ ʂɑʔ ˈdantəʔ dʊˈdːʷukətːa]

dog-ERG ATEL.INSTR.APPL-bite 3PS.GEN sharp tooth.ABS DAT=shaman

A dog was biting the shaman with its sharp teeth.

Copula

The Thangha' copula /ɕəʔ/ is a verb that conjugates regularly like all of the others. Note that for it to correspond to English "to be", it must take the atelic aspect, so in the default voice it is /ʎə-ˈɕəʔ/. If it takes the telic aspect (i.e. becoming /mʲaɲəʔ-ˈɕəʔ/ in the default voice), it means "to become".

Note that the copula counts as a transitive verb, so the subject generally takes the ergative case e.g.

/ˈcçada-ɟa ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈcçædæ-ɟæ ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa]

shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS

The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "Who is the shaman?")

However, just as with other transitive verbs, the subject can be topicalised, in which case it loses the ergative marker e.g.

/ˈcçada ʎə-ˈɕəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ˈcçæda ʎɪˈɕɪʔ dʷukətːa]

shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS

The shepherd is the shaman (answering the actual or implied question of "What does the shepherd do?")

Predicative Adjectives

However, when an adjective is used as a predicate, the copula verb is not used. Instead, the adjective is verbalised, taking the atelic prefix ʎə- and becoming an intranstive verb (so the subject will not take the ergative case) e.g.

/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-ˈdʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ/

[ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ]

tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp

The dog's teeth are sharp.

Locative Verb

Unlike English, to express location, Thangha' speakers use a different verb to the copula. This is /ʔe/, which usually takes an atelic prefix to become /ʎəˈʔe/. For example:

/ʎə-ˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bə=ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ʎɪˈʔe ˈjiːtəʔ bʊdʷukətːa]

ATEL-LOC food.ABS next.to=shaman

The food is next to the shaman.

As can be seen in the above example, in contrast to the copula verb, the locative verb is intransitive, and the subject takes the absolutive case.

Relative Clauses

These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g.

/ˈdʷoʁəʔ xaⁿ=ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ xæɲʎɪˈbetəʔ ˈbaⁿ]

dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS

The dog that is biting the bone.

Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g.

/baⁿ xaⁿ=dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/

[baⁿ xanˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]

bone REL=dog-ERG ATEL-bite

The bone that the dog is biting.

Numbers

As in English, numbers precede the noun that they modify e.g.

/tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/

[tʷuːˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]

two dog

Two dogs

To make ordinal numerals, prefix /də/ to the numeral e.g.

/də-tʷuː dʷoʁəʔ/

[dʊtʷuː ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ]

ORD-two dog

The second dog

However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /faⁿ/, the word for "first" is /ˈpɕasəʔtəʔ/ [ˈpɕætːəʔ].

Questions

Polar Questions

A statement is turned into a polar question using the particle /ba/. It comes at the beginning of the sentence, except if a noun is topicalised, in which case it follows that noun e.g.

/ˈdʷokəʔta mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[dʷukətːa mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

shaman.TOP TEL-fall

The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what the boss did)

/ˈdʷokəʔta ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ/

[dʷukətːa ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ]

shaman.TOP Q TEL-fall

Did the shaman drop to the ground?

/mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]

TEL-fall shaman.ABS

The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say who dropped to the ground).

/ba mʲaɲəʔ-ˈpfaɫəʔ ˈdʷokəʔta/

[ba mʲæɲɪˈpːfɑɫʌʔ dʷukətːa]

Q TEL-fall shaman.ABS

Did the shaman drop to the ground? (or was it somebody else).

/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈkəʔta baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈkətːa baⁿ]

dog-TOP ATEL-bite bone.ABS

The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to describe what the dog was doing)

/dʷoʁəʔ ba ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ba ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

dog.TOP Q ATEL-bite bone.ABS

Was the dog biting the bone?

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS

The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to point out that the dog was biting the bone, and not a cat)

/ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ baⁿ/

[ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ baⁿ]

Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS

Was the dog biting the bone? (or was it something else)

/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/

[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]

bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-bite

The bone was being bitten by the dog.

/baⁿ ba dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈbetəʔ/

[baⁿ ba ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈbetəʔ]

bone.TOP Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite

Was the bone being bitten by the dog?

Wh-Phrases

Unlike English, Thangha' is a wh-in-situ language, i.e. it lacks Wh-movement e.g.

/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈbetəʔ cəⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈbetəʔ ceⁿ]

dog-TOP ATEL-bite what

What was the dog biting?

Thangha's equivalents of English "wh-words" are all derived from /cəⁿ/ - "what" e.g.

/cəⁿ ˈbuːmʲəʔ/ [ceⁿ ˈbʉːmʲɪʔ] - "where" (literally "what place")

/cəⁿ ˈɕiːdʑaⁿ/ [ceⁿ ˈɕiːdʑæⁿ] - "when" (literally "what time")

/ˈcənaⁿ/ [ˈcɪnaⁿ] - "who" (a contraction of /ceⁿ ʔaⁿ/ - "what person")

/cəⁿ fʲe/ [ceⁿ fʲi] - "how" (literally "what method")

/cəⁿ ʎəʔˈxʷiː/ [ceⁿ ʎʏˈxːʷyː] / [ceⁿ ʎʏˈɸːyː] / [ceⁿ ʎɪˈɸːiː] - "why" (literally "what reason")

Thangha' has two ways to ask questions where English would use "whose", depending on whether the possession is alienable or inalienable. In the case of inalienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the genitive prefix /naⁿ-/, becoming /naⁿ-ˈcəⁿ/, and coming after the noun it possesses e.g.

/baⁿ naⁿ-ˈcəⁿ/

[baⁿ næŋˈceⁿ]

bone.ABS GEN-what

Whose bone? (in their body)

In the case of alienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the ergative suffix /-ɟa/, becoming /ˈcaⁿ-ɟa/, and coming before the noun it possesses e.g.

/ˈcaⁿ-ɟa baⁿ/

[ˈcæɲɟæ baⁿ]

what-ERG bone

Whose bone? (in their possession)

Predicative Possession

Standard Intransitive Construction

To say "A has B" in Thangha', the standard way is for A (the possessor) to appear at the start of the sentence as a topic (in the absolutive case), followed by the verb /ˈdaʔa/ - "to exist", taking the atelic prefix /ʎə-/, becoming /ʎə-ˈdaʔa/. Finally, the possessed noun appears, also in the absolutive case. For example:

/dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]

dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS

The dog has a bone.

Transitive Construction

The above is the most common way to express predicative possession in Thangha', treating /ˈdaʔa/ as an intransitive verb. However, the language is undergoing a process of "have-drift", due to contact with North-East Antarctican (which has a transitive verb just like English "have"). Recently, many speakers have begun to use the above construction interchangeably with a second construction, where the possessor is in the ergative case:

/dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/

[ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]

dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS

The dog has a bone.

Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g.

/baⁿ dʷoʁəʔ-ɟa ʎə-ˈdaʔa/

[baⁿ ˈdʷɔʁɘɟːæ ʎɪˈdaʔa]

bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have

The bone belongs to the dog.

However, /ˈdaʔa/ has not yet become a fully fledged transitive verb. For example, unlike other transitive verbs, it cannot take an antipassive prefix to become */ʎama-ˈdaʔa/.

With Pronouns

When a pronoun is the possessor, it takes the agentive case if the possession is alienable, and the patientive case if the possession is inalienable e.g.

/ˈʔəʔkʷa ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/

[ˈʔʊkːʷa ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]

1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone

I have a bone (e.g. I'm holding it).

/ˈʔacəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa baⁿ/

[ˈʔæceⁿ ʎɪˈdaʔa baⁿ]

1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone

I have a bone (e.g. in my body).

Comparative Constructions

The prepositional clitic /ʔabafəʔ/ [ʔabaʔ] literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g.

/ˈdaⁿtəʔ naⁿ-dʷoʁəʔ ʎə-ˈʂapəʔ ʔabafəʔ=ɲəʔ baⁿ/

[ˈdantəʔ nanˈdʷɔʁʌʔ ʎɘˈʂɑʔ ʔabæʔˈɲɪʔ baⁿ]

tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone

The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones.