User:Frrurtu/Sandbox2

History

See also: Proto-Rttirrian and Proto-North-Rttirrian

Zoki is a member of the Rttirrian language family, whose languages are spoken across the nation of Rttirria as well as in adjoining areas of Myanmar and Thailand. It is part of the North Rttirrian branch of the family; the dialects of Proto-North-Rttirrian that would become Rttirri split off from those that would become other languages around the 2rd to 4th century CE, probably in central Myanmar.

Zoki is considered one of the most innovative Rttirrian languages, having undergone considerable changes in grammar and phonology over the millennia. The main changes from Proto-North-Rttirrian to Gaju are summarized here:

• The two verb forms (roughly equivalent to transitive and intransitive) evolved into seven (all of which can be transitive or intransitive in certain contexts), aided by a rigorous pattern of ablaut of verb prefixes, some reduplication, and reappropriation of the Old Zoki word shikh ("to do") into a verbal affix.

• The verb-pattern system also became more accepting of loaned morphemes, which inflected regularly (cf. Arabic kuub "cup", akwaab "cups").
• Because of the system's growing flexibility, auxiliary verbs began to be used less.

• The verb-affixation system was hugely simplified, changing from one that encoded person, number, and tense to a very vestigial system.
• The possessive, plural, and diminutive noun affixes became separate clitic-like words.
• Many of the pronouns were simplified to some degree.
• A chain shift took place from the retroflex series of consonants, to the alveolar series, to a new dental series.
• In verbs and gerunds, word-initial */β/ became a new /w/.
• Also in verbs and gerunds, but not in most loanwords, intervocalic and final */j/ became /d͡ʒ/. This resulted in a phonemic split.
• Outside verbs and gerunds, */d/ palatalized to /d͡ʒ/ before front vowels.
• In sequences involving /j/ and /w/, vowels were lengthened; they were also lengthened in certain positions verbs to more clearly distinguish between the various verb forms.
• Outside verbs and gerunds, in coda position, there was a chain shift from /k/ to /g/ to a new /ŋ/, which became phonemic when Zoki imported numerous words containing /ŋ/ from other languages in Southeast Asia.
• In some dialects of late Old Zoki, the voiced and voiceless stops (velar, alveolar, and bilabial) chain-shifted universally to voiceless and voiceless aspirated under areal influence, e.g. */b/ > /p/ > /pʰ/. Dialect mixing caused these dialects to re-import the more conservative pronunciations in certain consonantal roots, but not others, and these hybrid pronunciations then spread, leading to new phonemic distinctions between all three series of stops.
• The dental stop series disappeared:

• /n̪/ palatalized to /ɲ/.
• /t̪/ and /d̪/ palatalized and affricated to /tɕ/ and /dʑ/.
• /t̪ʰ/ and /d̪ʰ/ fricativized to /θ/ and /ð/.

• /d͡ʒ/ merged into this new /dʑ/.
• Initial /x/ became /h/, while coda /x/ became a re-introduced coda /k/.
• A sweeping vowel shift caused the following effects:

• /iː/, /uː/, /eː/, and a /oː/ lost their length but took a schwa offglide.
• /ɔː/ lowered and unrounded to /ɑ/, lost its length, and took a schwa offglide, although many speakers now pronounce it simply as /ɑ/.
• /i/ and /e/ chain-shifted to /e/ and /ɛ/. Likewise, /u/, /o/, and /ɔ/ became /o/, /ɔ/, and /ɑ/.
• /ä/ raised to /ə/.

• In onset, /ɸ/ and /β/ labiodentalized to /f/ and /v/; elsewhere, they caused various effects on the vowels:

• /iː/ and /uː/ avoided the expected diphthongization, leading to phonemic splits between /i/ and /iə/ and between /u/ and /uə/.
• However, every other vowel became newly diphthongized with a schwa offglide.

• Some old /iːCV/ and /uːCV/ sequences simplified to /i/ and /u/.

Phonology

Consonants

Zoki possesses the following consonant phonemes:

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m /m/		n /n/		ny /ɳ/	ng /ŋ/
Plosive	p /p/ *b /b/ *pp /pʰ/		t /t/ *d /d/ *tt /tʰ/			k /k/ *g /g/ *kk /kʰ/
Fricative	f /f/ *v /v/	th /θ/ *dh /ð/	s /s/ *z /z/	sh /ʃ/ *zh /ʒ/			h /h/
Affricate				ch /tɕ/ j /dʑ/
Approximant	w /w/		l /l/ *r /ɹ/		y /j/

Vowels

The following vowel phonemes are used:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i /i/ ì /iə/		u /u/ ù /uə/
Mid-high	é /e/ è /eə/		ó /o/ ò /oə/
Mid		û /ə/
Low-mid	e /ɛ/		o /ɔ/
Low	a /a/ (ai /ai/) (au /au/)		â /ɑ/ (ấ /ɑə/)

• The distinction between /ɑ/ and /ɑə/ is a remnant of the historical vowel length distinction in Old Zoki; vowel shifts since the Old Zoki period have diphthongized most instances of the historical long vowels, while the short vowels have altered in quality. However, in the case of short and long historical */ɔ/, most speakers have merged them to /ɑ/; the diphthongization of historical long */ɔ/ to /ɑə/ is now considered a dying feature.
• The diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ do not occur in native Zoki words except for a few interjections and onomatopoeic terms, such as hai ("haha") and hau ("ouch"). They occur in some loanwords, but speakers, especially less educated ones, often pronounce them variously as bisyllabic a-i and a-u, as monophthongal a, or as monophthongal i and u.

Grammar

As part of the Southeast Asian sprachbund, Zoki has lost most of the complex affixational morphology of Proto-Rttirrian and become highly analytic. However, it retains parts of the (already simplified) affixational system of Old Zoki. Nevertheless, Zoki is no longer considered pro-drop, for example, as several verbal conjugation paradigms have merged together; pronouns are now generally used alongside verbs, except in some informal speech where they may be dropped. Similar processes have occurred in English and French.

Nouns

The following pronouns are used:

	1st		2nd		3rd
	Sing.	Pl.	Sing.	Pl.	Sing.	Pl.
Nominative (emphatic)	nûg	mo	a	sûg	tù	âk
Accusative	né	me	ké	se	yo	gi
Possessive	nû	mé	û	sû	â	e

Two particles may come after the entire noun phrase. One is the non-obligatory plural particle mi; the other is the diminutive ûzh. When multiple diminutive objects are being referred to, the particles may come in either order, although mi ûzh is more typical.

Verbs

Verbs conjugate, vestigially, for person and number of the subject:

	1st		2nd		3rd
	Sing.	Pl.	Sing.	Pl.	Sing.	Pl.
Past	o-	o-	—	—	—	o-
Present	—	—	—	—	—	e-
Future	—	—	—	ji-	—	ji-

However, consonantal verb roots can fit a large number of verb patterns, each of which puts a different nuance on the action.

Forms						Examples
Form	Past	Present	Future	Gerund	Meaning	Biliteral roots, e.g. k-b (to stop)	Triliteral roots, e.g. ṭ-j-ṇ (to bother)
I	shò1e2(e3)	shè1e2(e3)	shè1e2(e3)	nó1o2(o3)	to do something skillfully or carefully
II	1ò2(e3)	1è2(e3)	1è2(e3)	1e2(a3)	to undergo a process emphatically or suddenly	kēb – he stops suddenly	ṭējeṇ – he goes crazy
III	1u2ò2(e3)	1i2è2(e3)	1i2è2(e3)	1e2e2(a3)	to undergo a process repeatedly and quickly	kēb – he stops suddenly	ṭējeṇ – he goes crazy
IV	1a2(û3)	1a2(û3)	1e2(é3)	1â2(â3)	to undergo a process weakly or gradually	kāb – he slows to a halt	ṭājaṇ – he hesitates
V	1é2ò(3û)	1é2è(3û)	1é2è(3û)	1é2e(3a)	to act on someone/something emphatically or suddenly	kibē – he causes to stop suddenly	ṭijēṇe – he completely disrupts
VI	1i2é2ò(3û)	1i2é2è(3û)	1i2é2è(3û)	1i2é2e(3a)	to act on someone/something repeatedly and quickly	kibē – he causes to stop suddenly	ṭijēṇe – he completely disrupts
VII	1é2a(3û)	1é2a(3û)	1é2ì(3é)	1é2â(3â)	to act on someone/something weakly or gradually	kibā – he drags to a halt	ṭijāṇa – he annoys

The present tense of each verb form is syncretic with either the past or the future tense. This was also the case in Old Zoki, but in that stage of the language, the person/number affixes on the verb encoded unambiguous tense information, which is no longer the case in Modern Zoki. As a result, speakers often use mó (a truncation of mómó, lit. "now", cognate to Rttirri mumu) to specify that an action is taking place in the present. However, this word may come anywhere in the sentence, though it is found most frequently after the verb.

Tù né ttéjanyû.

3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V

He was/is annoying me.

Tù né ttéjanyû mó.

3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V now

He is annoying me.