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{{Infobox language
==History==
|image =
* As a result of collapsing of the different gendered endings for case inflections, the case system became significantly more [[w:agglutination|agglutinative]], requiring the gender and case suffixes to be attached to the noun separately.
|name = Old Zoki
|nativename = Zoki
|pronunciation = ['zoːki]
|region = Myanmar
|states =  
|setting =  
|speakers =  
|fam1 = Rttirrian
|fam2 = [[Proto-North-Rttirrian|North Rttirrian]]
|script = [[w:Latin script|Latin]] (unofficially), [[w:Burmese script|Burmese]]
}}
 
'''Old Zoki''' (English: /ˈzoʊki/, Old Zoki: ['zoːki], [[w:Burmese language|Burmese]]: [zo˥ki˩]) is the reconstructed common ancestor of Zoki and a few closely related languages spoken in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], spoken by the Zoki people and other groups around the 15th century CE. It is part of the [[w:Proto-North-Rttirrian|North Rttirrian]] branch of the Rttirrian family of languages, and a direct descendant of [[Proto-North-Rttirrian]].
 
Old Zoki was probably not written, but as modern Zoki is written in the [[w:Burmese script|Burmese]] abugida, linguistic texts and other materials featuring reconstructed Old Zoki typically use this abugida as well. However, because of the recency with which it was spoken, the language's phonology, vocabulary, and grammar are known with a fairly high degree of confidence.
 
The language had nominative-accusative alignment and largely analytic morphology, as part of the [[w:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area|Southeast Asian sprachbund]]. However, it is better known for its root-and-pattern inflectional system reminiscent of those of the [[w:Semitic languages|Semitic languages]]; this system allowed biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots to be expressed as nouns or adjectives as well as gerunds and several types of verbs. Phonologically, it distinguished six vowels (in both short and long versions) and 22 consonants.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Old Zoki possessed the following consonants:
Proto-Owina possessed the following consonants:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!  |
!  |Labial
!  |Dental
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal-<br>alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
|-
|-
! Nasal
! colspan="2" |
!  Labial
!  Alveolar
!  Palato-<br>alveolar
!  Velar
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| *'''m''' /m/
| *'''m''' /m/
| *'''ṇ''' /n̪/
| *'''n''' /n/
| *'''n''' /n/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Plosive
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
| *'''p''' /p/<br>*'''b''' /b/
! Voiceless
| *'''ṭ''' /t̪/<br>*'''ḍ''' /d̪/
| *'''p''' /p/
| *'''t''' /t/<br>*'''d''' /d/
| *'''t''' /t/
|
| *'''k''' /k/
|-
! Voiced
|
| *'''d''' /d/
|
| *'''g''' /g/
|-
! Aspirated
| *'''ph''' /pʰ/
| *'''th''' /tʰ/
|
| *'''kh''' /kʰ/
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! Voiceless
| *'''f''' /f/
| *'''s''' /s/
| *'''sh''' /ʃ/
|  
|  
|-
! Voiced
| *'''v''' /v/
|
| *'''j''' /ʒ/
|
|
| *'''k''' /k/<br>*'''g''' /g/
|-
|-
! Fricative
! rowspan="3" | Affricate
| *'''f''' /ɸ/<br>*'''v''' /β/
! Voiced
|
|
| *'''s''' /s/<br>*'''z''' /z/
| *'''sh''' /ʃ/<br>*'''zh''' /ʒ/
|
|
| *'''kh''' /x/
| *'''dj''' /d͡ʒ/
|
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Voiceless
|
|
|
| *'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/
|
|
| *'''j''' /d͡ʒ/
|-
! Aspirated
|
|
|
|
| *'''cch''' /t͡ʃʰ/
|
|
|-
|-
! Approximant
! colspan="2" | Approximant
| *'''w''' /w/
| *'''w''' /w/
| *'''l''' /l/
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Flap/Trill
|
| *'''r''' /r/
|
|
| *'''l''' /l/
|
|
| *'''y''' /j/
|
|}
|}
In addition, the phoneme '''*ng''' /ŋ/ was allowable in loanwords.
Allophonically, the voiceless stops were optionally aspirated in initial position, especially in loanwords. However, most speakers did not (yet) distinguish aspirated from non-aspirated stops in loanwords, instead using them interchangeably.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
The following vowels were used:
The following vowel phonemes are used:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |
!
! colspan="2" | Front
! Front
! colspan="2" | Central
! Central
! colspan="2" | Back
! Back
|-
! Short
! Long
! Short
! Long
! Short
! Long
|-
|-
! High
! High
| *'''i''' /i/
| *'''i''' /i/
| *'''ī''' /iː/
| *'''u''' /ʉ/
|
|  
|
| *'''u''' /u/
| *'''ū''' /uː/
|-
|-
! Mid-high
! Mid-high
| *'''e''' /e/
| *'''e''' /e/
| *'''ē''' /eː/
|  
|
|
| *'''o''' /o/
| *'''o''' /o/
| *'''ō''' /oː/
|-
|-
! Low-mid
! Mid
|
|
| *'''y''' /ə/
|
|
|-
! Mid-low
|
|
|
|  
| *'''â''' /ɔ/
| *'''ø''' /ɔ/
| *'''ấ''' /ɔː/
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
|
|
|
| *'''a''' /ä/
| *'''a''' /a/
| *'''ā''' /äː/
|
|
|
|}
|}
===Phonotactics===
Consonant clusters were not allowed (maximally CVC syllables), although a syllable ending with a consonant could be followed by a syllable beginning with one.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
===Roots===
===Pronouns===
Like the [[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]] languages of the Middle East, Old Zoki made use of a wealth of consonantal roots out of which various verbs and nouns could be formed. They could contain either two or three consonants. A sampling of some common consonantal roots is given below:
The following pronouns were used:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! colspan="3"|Root
!rowspan="4" |
! Cognate (Rttirri)
! Meaning
|-
|-
| ''k''
!colspan="2" | 1st
| ''b''
!colspan="2" | 2nd
| —
!colspan="8" | 3rd
| /kɑpɑ/
| to stop
|-
|-
| ''sh''
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
| ''j''
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
| —
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
| /t͡ʃi/
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
| to eat
! colspan="4" | Sing.
! colspan="4" | Pl.
|-
|-
| ''m''
! Masc.
| ''ṇ''
! Neut.
| —
! Fem.
| /munu/
! Them.
| to drink
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
|-
| ''ṭ''
! Nominative
| ''kh''
| ''*shig''
| —
| ''*e''
| /fiu/
| ''*far''
| to work
| ''*ja''
| ''*su''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tud''
| ''*sir''
| ''*ris''
| ''*tuj''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tur''
| ''*tiraj''
| ''*rini''
|-
|-
| ''s''
! Accusative
| ''g''
| ''*amí''
| —
| ''*esmí''
| /tøki/
| ''*fí''
| to lend
| ''*vosí''
| ''*tum''
| ''*tir''
| ''*rim''
| ''*tuns''
| ''*tires''
| ''*rines''
|-
|-
| ''t''
! Genitive
| ''b''
| ''*míne''
| —
| ''*eso''
| /ʂipi/
| ''*tíve''
| to tell, inform
| ''*shøso''
| colspan="2" | ''*søfó''
| ''*iser''
| ''*rincho''
| colspan="2" | ''*tisom''
| ''*tirom''
| ''*rinom''
|-
|-
| ''k''
! Dative
| ''l''
| ''*mísho''
| —
| ''*esmej''
| /kiɽi/
| ''*phájo''
| to learn, study
| ''*fasmej''
| colspan="2" | ''*smój''
| ''*rij''
| ''*rinej''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujmø''
| ''*timø''
| rowspan="2" | ''*rimos''
|-
|-
| ''p''
! Ablative
| ''k''
| ''*míd''
| —
| ''*esmed''
| /hiki/
| ''*fíd''
| to grow
| ''*fasmed''
| colspan="3" | ''*smód''
| ''*rind''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujos''
| ''*turos''
|-
|-
| ''kh''
! Locative
| ''l''
| rowspan="2" | ''*muáj''
| —
| ''*esmaj''
| /wɑɽɑ/ (to jump)
| rowspan="2" | ''*tuáj''
| to dive, pierce, shoot
| ''*fasmaj''
| colspan="2" | ''*smaj''
| ''*raj''
| ''*rinch''
| colspan="2" | ''*chø''
| ''*tichø''
| ''*rinchø''
|-
|-
| ''z''
! Instrumental
| ''g''
| ''*esmáj''
| —
| ''*fasmo''
| /ʃɑku/ (to trim)
| colspan="3" | ''*tuj''
| to edit, correct
| ''*rinar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tushphaj''
| ''*tiphaj''
| ''*rinash''
|-
|-
| ''k''
! Comitative
| ''ḍ''
| ''*amík''
| —
| ''*esmík''
| /kɑʔu/ (to squeeze)
| ''*fík''
| to have, own
| ''*vosík''
| ''*tyrom''
| colspan="2" | ''*turom''
| ''*rimom''
| ''*tunsom''
| ''*turom''
| ''*tirsom''
| ''*rinsom''
|-
|-
| ''b''
! Illative
| ''zh''
| ''*míshor''
| —
| ''*esmen''
| /piçi/ (electricity)
| ''*phájor''
| to spark, flash, glow
| ''*fasmen''
| colspan="2" | ''*smósh''
| ''*shin''
| ''*rinchar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujman''
| ''*turon''
| ''*rinchen''
|}
 
====Case declension====
Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
| ''n''
! rowspan="3" |
| ''kh''
| —
| /nuwu/ (water)
| to douse, splash
|-
|-
| ''d''
! colspan="4" | Singular
| ''k''
! colspan="4" | Plural
| —
| /ʈukɑ/ (pouch)
| to trap, enclose
|-
|-
| ''kh''
! Masc.
| ''f''
! Neut.
| ''g''
! Fem.
| /wøi/
! Them.
| to become
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
|-
| ''g''
! Nominative
| ''j''
| ''*-(a)m''
| ''ṇ''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| /jɑnɑ/
| ''*-(a)s''
| to cook
| ''*-(a)sh''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| rowspan="2" | ''*-(a)r''
| ''*-(y)sh''
| ''*-∅/-y''
|-
|-
| ''ḍ''
! Accusative
| ''j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)m''
| ''m''
| ''*-(e)s''
| /cɑmɑ/ (to sew)
| colspan="2" | ''*-(e)s''
| to connect, join
|-
|-
| ''ṭ''
! Genitive (inalienable)
| ''j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)s''
| ''ṇ''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(s)om''
| /çnini/ (problem)
| to bother
|-
|-
| ''w''
! Genitive (alienable)
| ''b''
| colspan="4" | ''*-sho''
| ''s''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shom''
| /øpʼu/ (to flex)
| to rotate, twist
|-
|-
| ''g''
! Dative
| ''j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(y)j''
| ''m''
| colspan="4" | ''*-mos''
| /jɑmɑi/ (fire)
| to burn
|-
|-
| ''b''
! Ablative
| ''v''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)d''
| ''l''
| colspan="4" | ''*-dom''
| /pøɽɑu/ (bread)
| to expand, puff up
|-
|-
| ''ṭ''
! Adessive
| ''k''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)ej''
| ''l''
| colspan="4" | ''*-sø''
| /tʼuɽɑ/ (boss)
| to supervise, spy on, follow
|-
|-
| ''sh''
! Inessive
| ''f''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)aj''
| ''k''
| colspan="4" | ''*-jom''
| /t͡ʃøkø/ (wide)
| to be wide, open, the ocean
|-
|-
| ''m''
! Instrumental
| ''p''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)r''
| ''j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-phaj''
| /mɑhɑi/ (to name)
|-
| to identify, choose
! Comitative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(i)k''
| colspan="4" | ''*-kom''
|-
! Illative
| colspan="4" | ''*-shar''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shen''
|}
|}


===Verbs===
Except for the plural in the accusative, cases were "stacked" on top of the nominative gender endings to explicitly indicate both gender, number, and case.
====Verb forms====
Old Zoki had several verb forms, each giving a different nuance to the concept expressed in the biliteral or triliteral root. These forms are summarized below.
 
Form I was used generally for loaned verbal concepts, mostly relating to skilled acts practiced by other local cultures and taught to the Zoki people. It is sometimes not considered a true verbal form, as it consisted of the single verb ''shekh'' ("to practice", cognate to [[Rttirri]] /t͡ʃiu/ "to do") followed by an auxiliary verb—the gerund is ''nufokh'' ("process", a truncation of ''rinufokh'', cognate to Rttirri /ɻiɳøu/). This auxiliary verb, unlike the verbal concepts of the other four verb forms, did not need to take any particular vowel pattern.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-sh-'''as'''''
|-
:chick-THEM.SG-GEN.INAL.SG
!colspan="6"|Forms
:the chick's
!colspan="2"|Examples
|-
!Form
!Past
!Present
!Future
!Gerund
!Meaning
!Biliteral roots, e.g. ''k-b'' (to stop)
!Triliteral roots, e.g. ''ṭ-j-ṇ'' (to bother)
|-
! I
| ''shekh-___''
| ''shekh-___''
| ''shekh-___''
| ''nufokh-___''
| to do something skillful or foreign
| ''shekh-puwāng'' – he imitates<br>(from [[w:Middle Chinese|Middle Chinese]] /pʰʉɐŋX/ [[wiktionary:仿|仿]])
| ''shekh-siyā'' – he spins silk<br>(from [[w:Middle Chinese|Middle Chinese]] /sɨʌH/ [[wiktionary:絮|絮]])
|-
! II
| ''_ō_(e_)''
| ''_ē_(e_)''
| ''_ē_(e_)''
| ''_ē_(e_)''
| to undergo a process emphatically or suddenly
| ''kēb'' – he stops suddenly
| ''ṭējeṇ'' – he goes crazy
|-
! III
| ''_ā_(a_)''
| ''_ā_(a_)''
| ''_ī_(i_)''
| ''_ấ_(â_)''
| to undergo a process weakly or gradually
| ''kāb'' – he slows to a halt
| ''ṭājaṇ'' – he hesitates
|-
! IV
| ''_i_ō(_e)''
| ''_i_ē(_e)''
| ''_i_ē(_e)''
| ''_i_ē(_e)''
| to act on someone/something emphatically or suddenly
| ''kibē'' – he causes to stop suddenly
| ''ṭijēṇe'' – he completely disrupts
|-
! V
| ''_i_ā(_a)''
| ''_i_ā(_a)''
| ''_i_ī(_i)''
| ''_i_ấ(_â)''
| to act on someone/something weakly or gradually
| ''kibā'' – he drags to a halt
| ''ṭijāṇa'' – he annoys
|}


====Verb inflection====
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-∅-'''som'''
The following verb prefixes are reconstructed:
:chick-THEM.PL-GEN.INAL.PL
:the chicks'


===Verb phrases===
====Person/number conjugation====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="3" |
!rowspan="4" |
|-
!colspan="6" | Athematic
!colspan="6" | Thematic
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 2nd
Line 368: Line 358:
! Sing.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Pl.
|-
!Past
| ''*mo-''
| ''*om-''
| ''*ap-''
| ''*am-''
| ''*bo-''
| ''*bom-''
|-
!Present
| ''*na-''
| ''*nam-''
| ''*af-''
| ''*sam-''
| —
| ''*khem-''
|-
!Future
| ''*ne-''
| ''*mi-''
| ''*ke-''
| ''*mīj-''
| ''*j-''
| ''*mēj-''
|}
===Nouns===
Most nouns were pluralized with ''*-m'' if they ended with a vowel, or ''*-mi'' if they ended with a consonant. A small class of nouns ending in ''*-ey/y'' (historically, a diminutive suffix) were pluralized instead with ''*-mizh''.
The following pronouns are reconstructed:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="3" |
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
|-
! Sing.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Pl.
Line 413: Line 365:
! Pl.
! Pl.
|-
|-
! Nominative<br>(emphatic)
!Past
| ''*nak''
| ''*-ø''
| ''*naw''
| ''*-ømí''
| ''*āt''
| ''*-as''
| ''*sak''
| ''*-etí''
| ''*âtū''
| ''*-a''
| ''*âk''
| ''*-and''
| ''*-om''
| ''*-ome''
| ''*-es''
| ''*-ete''
| ''*-ed''
| ''*-ond''
|-
|-
! Accusative
!Present
| ''*ni''
| ''*-ma''
| ''*me''
| ''*-mos''
| ''*ki''
| ''*-sa''
| ''*se''
| ''*-te''
| ''*yo''
| ''*-ta''
| ''*goj''
| ''*-ach''
|-
| ''*-o''
! Possessive<br>noun prefix
| ''*-om''
| ''*na-''
| ''*-ash''
| ''*mi-''
| ''*-et''
| ''*ak-''
| ''*-omo''
| ''*sa-''
| ''*-och''
| ''*â-''
| ''*e-''
|}
|}
===Syntax===
Standard word order was subject-object-verb (SOV).
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Muse-m asi-m bom-shōj.
:cat-PL mouse-PL 3PL.PST-eat.Form_II.PRES
:The cats ate the mice.
Adjectives followed nouns, and adpositions followed noun phrases.
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Biṇu tavdav
:light bright
:the bright light
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Shấfâk kulā '''nō''' mo-khōl.
:be_wide.GER deep into 1SG.PST-dive.Form_II.PST
:I dove into the deep ocean.
However, verb-subject-object (VSO) order was used for some purposes, most commonly conditionals and subjunctives.
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Na-kāl nak gijấṇâ, biza shā na-kēḍ mis Tấmu.
:1SG.PRES 1SG.NOM cook.Form_V.GER, husband beautiful 1SG.PRES-have.Form_II.PRES like Tấmu
:If I learned how to cook, I would get a handsome husband like Tấmu (has).
===Negation===
There was no single negative particle used in Old Zoki. Instead, verbs were negated with the suffix ''-n'' if they ended with a vowel, or ''-an'' if they ended with a consonant.
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Ar ∅-gājam-'''an'''.
:house 3SG.PRES-burn.Form_III.PRES-NEG
:The house isn't burning.
Noun and adjective phrases were negated with the prefixing clitic ''kag'' (lit. "entirely", cognate to Rttirri /kɑi/ "if only") and the suffix ''-nu''.
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Āt '''kag''' sīmi og '''nu'''.
:2SG.NOM NEG smart very NEG
:You're not that smart.

Latest revision as of 02:25, 13 June 2017

History

  • As a result of collapsing of the different gendered endings for case inflections, the case system became significantly more agglutinative, requiring the gender and case suffixes to be attached to the noun separately.

Phonology

Consonants

Proto-Owina possessed the following consonants:

Labial Alveolar Palato-
alveolar 		Velar
Nasal *m /m/ *n /n/
Plosive Voiceless *p /p/ *t /t/ *k /k/
Voiced *d /d/ *g /g/
Aspirated *ph /pʰ/ *th /tʰ/ *kh /kʰ/
Fricative Voiceless *f /f/ *s /s/ *sh /ʃ/
Voiced *v /v/ *j /ʒ/
Affricate Voiced *dj /d͡ʒ/
Voiceless *ch /t͡ʃ/
Aspirated *cch /t͡ʃʰ/
Approximant *w /w/ *l /l/
Flap/Trill *r /r/

Vowels

The following vowel phonemes are used:

Front Central Back
High *i /i/ *u /ʉ/
Mid-high *e /e/ *o /o/
Mid *y /ə/
Mid-low *ø /ɔ/
Low *a /a/

Grammar

Pronouns

The following pronouns were used:

1st 2nd 3rd
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Masc. Neut. Fem. Them. Masc. Neut. Fem. Them.
Nominative *shig *e *far *ja *su *tud *sir *ris *tuj *tur *tiraj *rini
Accusative *amí *esmí *fí *vosí *tum *tir *rim *tuns *tires *rines
Genitive *míne *eso *tíve *shøso *søfó *iser *rincho *tisom *tirom *rinom
Dative *mísho *esmej *phájo *fasmej *smój *rij *rinej *tujmø *timø *rimos
Ablative *míd *esmed *fíd *fasmed *smód *rind *tujos *turos
Locative *muáj *esmaj *tuáj *fasmaj *smaj *raj *rinch *chø *tichø *rinchø
Instrumental *esmáj *fasmo *tuj *rinar *tushphaj *tiphaj *rinash
Comitative *amík *esmík *fík *vosík *tyrom *turom *rimom *tunsom *turom *tirsom *rinsom
Illative *míshor *esmen *phájor *fasmen *smósh *shin *rinchar *tujman *turon *rinchen

Case declension

Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.

Singular Plural
Masc. Neut. Fem. Them. Masc. Neut. Fem. Them.
Nominative *-(a)m *-∅/-y *-(a)s *-(a)sh *-∅/-y *-(a)r *-(y)sh *-∅/-y
Accusative *-(a)m *-(e)s *-(e)s
Genitive (inalienable) *-(a)s *-(s)om
Genitive (alienable) *-sho *-shom
Dative *-(y)j *-mos
Ablative *-(a)d *-dom
Adessive *-(j)ej *-sø
Inessive *-(j)aj *-jom
Instrumental *-(a)r *-phaj
Comitative *-(i)k *-kom
Illative *-shar *-shen

Except for the plural in the accusative, cases were "stacked" on top of the nominative gender endings to explicitly indicate both gender, number, and case.

*pipi-sh-as
chick-THEM.SG-GEN.INAL.SG
the chick's
*pipi-∅-som
chick-THEM.PL-GEN.INAL.PL
the chicks'

Verb phrases

Person/number conjugation

Athematic Thematic
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Past *-ø *-ømí *-as *-etí *-a *-and *-om *-ome *-es *-ete *-ed *-ond
Present *-ma *-mos *-sa *-te *-ta *-ach *-o *-om *-ash *-et *-omo *-och
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