Hutala

Phonology

Orthography

Hútala is written with the Latin alphabet. Diacritics can be used to indicate stressed vowels : á, é, í, ó, ú, but they are often omitted. They will be used in this article.

A a /a/
B b /b/
D d /d/
E e /e/
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
Dj dj /d͡ʒ/ (J, j is an alternative spelling that fell into disuse by analogy with Tx, tx).
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/
P p /p/
Q q /ʔ/
R r /r/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /ʃ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/

Digraphs include : Dj, dj /d͡ʒ/ ; Tx, tx /t͡ʃ/ ; Ng, ng /ŋ/ ; Ts, ts /t͡s/ ; Dz, dz /d͡z/.

Consonants

		Bilabial		Labio-dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Glottal
Nasal		m				n								ŋ
Plosive		p b				t d								k g		ʔ
Fricative				f v				s z		ʃ ʒ						h
Approximant												j		w
Trill								r
Affricate								t͡s d͡z		t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Lateral approx.						l

Vowels

		Front		Central		Back
Close		i				u
Close-mid		e				o
Open				a

Phonotactics

The syllable underlying structure is most usually (C)V, but consonant clusters can appear at the surface in morpheme boundaries as a result of derivative and especially of inflectional morphology. Consequently, such clusters only show up word-internally and are limited to two consonantal phonemes. However, there is no restriction on the consonants which can make up the cluster, or on their identity as C1 or C2. On the other hand, there are phenomena of voice assimilation : if one of the consonants is voiced and the other unvoiced, the voiced one gets devoiced, unless it is a nasal (although some level of devoicing might be observed in practice for nasals too). There is also an assimilation of place of articulation of the nasals /n/ and /ŋ/ and their homorganic counterparts. A word or a syllable can start with any phoneme. On the other hand, coda consonants or consonants at the end of a word are rare and diachronically restricted to nasals and stridents, but in synchronic, spoken Hútala, other coda consonants have appeared as a consequence of the elision of final vowels.

Morphology

Nouns

Hútala has so-called noun classes. There are 12 singular noun classes and 12 corresponding plural noun classes. They are numbered as follows : CL1a to CL12a for the singular, and CL1b to CL12b for the plural. Class is marked on the noun by a prefix ; every noun belongs to one class, often following some semantic grouping. Adjectives and verbs agree in class with the noun and are marked in the same way.

Noun Class	Singular	Plural
CL1 : human/sentient	hu-	hi-
CL2 : land animals	ma-	me-
CL3 : sea and sky animals	ba-	be-
CL4 : bugs	za-	ze-
CL5 : sweet edible plants	su-	ʃi-
CL6 : savory edible plants	sa-	se-
CL7 : sensations/feelings	se-	sei-
CL8 : tools, useful objects	ʔu-	ʔi-
CL9 : clothes, buildings	ro-	ra-
CL10 : other artefacts, dishes	de-	d͡ʒi-
CL11 : soft, warm, light	ru-	rui-
CL12 : hard, cold, dark	t͡ʃo-	t͡ʃa-

Thus, nouns are marked for class, and consequently for number, but also for definiteness. As has already been mentioned above, class is marked by a prefix ; definiteness, however, is marked by a suffix : CL-noun-DEF. There are four definiteness suffixes to choose from ; historically, they correspond to the fusion of two "sorts" of definiteness for which the noun had to be marked. The first kind of definiteness, DEF1, corresponds to whether the referent is known or has been mentioned, or if on the contrary it is unknown or new in the conversation. The second kind of definiteness, DEF2, corresponds to whether the referent is a specific one, or instead a typical, unspecified one. Morphosyntactically, the noun inflectional structure would be : CL-noun-DEF1-DEF2. In the pair "specified vs typical", typicality was unmarked, so that eventually the morphemes DEF1 and DEF2 fusionned into 4 definiteness morphemes such that DEF1 would be either unmarked or marked for specificity.

Definiteness	Suffix
known/mentioned ; typical	-nde
known/mentioned ; specific	-nd͡ʒi
unknown/new ; typical	-t͡sa
unknown/new ; specific	-t͡se

Verbs

Verbs are marked for class, polarity, evidentiality, volition, frequency, tense, aspect and mode : CL-POL-EVD-verb stem-VOL-FRQ-TAM

Class

Class is a mark of agreement with the subject noun. However, there is no marking for class in the case of the passive voice. The prefixes are the same as for nouns, but there is some degree of fusion with the following affixes.

Polarity

Polarity has three values : affirmative, negative, and neutral, which is unmarked and used for questions and irrealis modality.

Value	Affix
affirmative	ʃi-
negative	no-
neutral	-

Evidentiality

Evidentiality also has three values : whether someone knows something from perceiving it with their own senses, or instead from a source of authority (this typically includes professors, scientists, books...) or from simple hearsay. Verbs are also not marked for evidentiality in the case of questions or irrealis.

Source of evidence	Affix
senses, perception	tu-
authority	kit-
hearsay	ded-

Volition

Volition has only two values : an action is voluntary/controlled, or it is unvoluntary/out of one's control.

Value	Affix
controlled, voluntary	-wi
uncontrolled, unvoluntary	-t͡sa

Frequency

Frequency also has only two values : occasional vs repetitive.

Value	Affix
occasional	-ŋa
repetitive, recurrent	-ses

Tense and Aspect

There are four values for the past tense ; two values for the present, one of which corresponds rather to the progressive aspect ; and three values for the future, one of which corresponds rather to the inchoative aspect.

Value	Affix
immemorial past	-suʃ
further past	-fa
recent past	-te
earlier in the day	-kate ; -kaʔ
going on / progressive	kiŋa ; -ŋa
present, habitual present	-
about to start / inchoative	-koa
near future	-re
far future	-sar

Allomorphy and surface form

In practice, there is a lot of boundaries fusion going on between the affixes, so that the surface forms are different from the mere agglutination of the inflectional affixes.

Before the verb root : CL-POL-EVD

Class	POL:aff, EVD:sense	POL:neg, EVD:sense	POL:aff, EVD:auth	POL:neg, EVD:auth	POL:aff, EVD:hearsay	POL:neg, EVD:hearsay
CL1a	'huʃtu	'huntu	hu'ʃ:it	'huŋkit	'huʒded	'hunded
CL1b	'ʃ:itu	'hintu	hi'ʃ:it	'hiŋkit	'ʃ:ided	'hinded
CL2a	'maʃtu	'mantu	ma'ʃ:it	'maŋkit	'maʒded	'manded
CL2b	'meʃtu	'mentu	me'ʃ:it	'meŋkit	'meʒded	'mended
CL3a	'baʃtu	'bantu	ba'ʃ:it	'baŋkit	'baʒded	'banded
CL3b	'beʃtu	'bentu	be'ʃ:it	'beŋkit	'beʒded	'bended
CL4a	'zaʃtu	'zantu	za'ʃ:it	'zaŋkit	'zaʒded	'zanded
CL4b	'zeʃtu	'zentu	ze'ʃ:it	'zeŋkit	'zeʒded	'zended
CL5a	'suʃtu	'suntu	su'ʃ:it	'suŋkit	'suʒded	'sunded
CL5b	'ʃiʃtu	'ʃintu	ʃ:it	'ʃiŋ̍kit	'ʒided	'ʃinded
CL6a	'saʃtu	'santu	sa'ʃ:it	'saŋ̍kit	'saʒded	'sanded
CL6b	'seʃtu	'sentu	se'ʃ:it	'seŋkit	'seʒded	'sended
CL7a	'seʃtu	'sentu	se'ʃ:it	'seŋkit	'seʒded	'sended
CL7b	'seiʃtu	'seintu	'seiʃit	'seiŋkit	'seiʒded	'seinded
CL8a	'ʔuʃtu	'ʔuntu	ʔu'ʃ:it	'ʔuŋkit	'ʔuʒded	'ʔunded
CL8b	'ʔiʃtu	'ʔintu	ʔi'ʃ:it	'ʔiŋkit	'ʔiʒded	'ʔinded
CL9a	'roʃtu	'rontu	ro'ʃ:it	'roŋkit	'roʒded	'ronded
CL9b	'raʃtu	'rantu	ra'ʃ:it	'raŋkit	'raʒded	'randed
CL10a	'deʃtu	'dentu	de'ʃ:it	'deŋkit	'deʒded	'dended
CL10b	't͡ʃi:tu	'd͡ʒintu	't͡ʃi:ʃit	'd͡ʒiŋkit	'd͡ʒiʒded	'd͡ʒinded
CL11a	'ruʃtu	'runtu	ru'ʃ:it	'ruŋkit	'ruʒded	'runded
CL11b	'ruiʃtu	'ruindu	'ruiʃit	'ruiŋkit	'ruiʒded	ruinded
CL12a	't͡ʃ:oitu	't͡ʃontu	't͡ʃ:oikit	't͡ʃoŋkit	't͡ʃ:oided	't͡ʃonded
CL12b	't͡ʃ:etu	't͡ʃantu	't͡ʃ:ekit	't͡ʃaŋkit	't͡ʃ:eded	't͡ʃanded

After the verb root : VOL-FRQ-TAM

FRQ/TAM	VOL: voluntary, controlled	VOL: involuntary, uncontrolled
FRQ:occ, TAM:immemorial	'winsuʃ	't͡sansuʃ
FRQ:occ, TAM:far past	'wimfa	't͡samfa
FRQ:occ, TAM:recent past	'winte	't͡sante
FRQ:occ, TAM:earlier	'wiŋkate ; wiŋ'kaʔ	't͡saŋkate ; t͡saŋ'kaʔ
FRQ:occ, TAM:progressive	wi'ŋ:iŋa ; 'wiŋ:a	t͡sa'ŋ:iŋa ; t͡sa'iŋ:a
FRQ:occ, TAM:present	'wiŋa ; wiŋ	't͡saŋa ; t͡saŋ
FRQ:occ, TAM:inchoative	'wiŋkoa ; 'wiŋka	't͡saŋkoa ; 't͡saŋka
FRQ:occ, TAM:near future	'wiŋgre	't͡saŋgre
FRQ:occ, TAM:far future	'winsar	't͡sansar
FRQ:rep, TAM:immemorial	'wis:uʃ	't͡sas:uʃ
FRQ:rep, TAM:far past	'wis:fa	't͡sas:fa
FRQ:rep, TAM:recent past	'wis:te	't͡sas:te
FRQ:rep, TAM:earlier	'wis:kate ; wis'kaʔ	't͡sas:kate ; t͡sas'kaʔ
FRQ:rep, TAM:progressive	wi's:iŋa	t͡sa's:iŋa ; 't͡s:iŋa
FRQ:rep, TAM:present	'wises ; wis:	't͡sases ; t͡sas:
FRQ:rep, TAM:inchoative	'wis:koa ; 'wis:ka	't͡sas:koa ; 't͡sas:ka
FRQ:rep, TAM:near future	'wis:re	't͡sas:re
FRQ:rep, TAM:far future	'wis:ar	't͡sas:ar

Also, while the root form of a verb usually follows a CVCV pattern, if there is more than one syllable, the last vowel is dropped.

Adjectives

Adjectives qualify nouns. As such, they agree with the noun they qualify in class and, depending on the syntax, in definiteness : while usually placed immediately before the noun and not marked for definiteness, for emphatic or poetic purposes it can be placed after the noun and is then marked for definiteness, in agreement with the noun.

Adverbs

Adverbs qualify verbs or adjectives. They are usually placed before the verb or adjective they qualify. Adverbs and adjectives are usually formed on the same lexical base and differ formally only by which inflectional marks of agreement they take. When an adverb qualifies a verb, then it agrees with the verb in polarity and tense : POL-root-TAM. When an adverb qualifies an adjective, then it agrees with the adjective in class, and with the verb of the sentence in polarity, if applicable : CL-POL-root.

Syntax

Constituent order

The basic constituent order for transitive phrases is SVO, while for intransitive phrases it is VS. It is also VS for expressions in the passive voice. Constituent order changes in the case of questions : they are verb-final, so that we get SOV and SV.

Noun phrase

Most usually, the adjective precedes the noun. In this case, the adjective is not marked for definiteness. For emphatic or poetic effects, the adjective will follow the noun, in which case it will be marked for definiteness, in agreement with the noun. If an adverb qualifies an adjective, then it will be placed between the noun and the adjective. NP : (Adj) (Adv) N or N (Adv) (Adj)

Verb phrase

If an adverb qualifies a verb, it usually precedes it.

Questions

SYntactically, questions are formed by placing the verb in final position : SV, SOV. Verbs are not marked for polarity or evidentiality : CL-root-VOL-FRQ-TAM

Passive voice

The passive voice is formed by placing the "patient" in a subject position and not marking the verb for class.