Shaj

Introduction

The Shaj languages are spoken across the planet Tanoria. The most widely spoken variety is Velshaj. Although the speakers of the language and their homeland are fictional, and most of the language creation was a priori, there is heavy lexical influence from European languages.

General Information

Velshaj nouns are mostly agglutinative, but verbals tend to be monomorphemic. There are five genders, five tenses, and many aspects. Word order is typically SOV. There are many cases of consonant mutation and ablaut, and the language is beginning to show signs of developing vowel harmony.

Phonology

Consonants

Nasals

Velshaj has three nasals: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The sequence /n/ + /ĭ/ yields a palatal nasal [ɲ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme.

Fricatives

Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts ([f], [θ], [s], and [x]), they are often regarded as separate phonemes. The voiceless postalveolar fricative (/ʃ/) is unique in that it clearly exists in contrastive distribution with /ʒ/, especially in syllable-initial position.

Plosives

Velshaj has four plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between dental /t̪/ and alveolar /t/. One such pair is t̪e "know", and te "turned". Also, alveolar /t/ can only occur in CV syllables (where C is /t/ and V is any vowel or diphthong), but /t̪/ may occur in consonant clusters or at the end of a syllable. The affricate /tʃ/ is also slightly restricted. It cannot occur before another consonant in the same syllable, but it can end a syllable.

Liquids

Velshaj has one lateral /l/, and one rhotic /r/. Like its nasal counterpart, the sequence /l/ + /ĭ/ yields a lateral palatal approximant [ʎ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme. Semivowels /ŭ/ and /ĭ/ exist, but are not regarded as consonants.

Summary Chart

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Velar
Nasal	m	n			ŋ
Fricative	v	ð	z	ʒ, ʃ	ɣ
Plosive	p	t̪	t	tʃ	k
Lateral		l
Rhotic			r

Vowels

Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /ɑ/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form closing diphthongs /eĭ/, /ɑĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and opening diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭɑ/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.

Summary Chart

	Front Unround	Front Round	Central Unround	Back Unround	Back Round
Semivowel	ĭ				ŭ
High	i	y			u
Mid	e	ø	ə		o
Low	æ			ɑ

Phonotactics and Prosody

Syllable structure can be as large as CCCVC and as small as V (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong). Every word needs a vowel, and no word may end in more than one consonant. Typically, stress is on the first syllable of the root, or the penultimate syllable of a word. Morphemes with two syllables rarely end in a vowel.

Mutations and Assimilations

Occasionally, the phonemes within a morpheme will change depending on their phonetic environment. The dental nasal will assimilate to the place of articulation of any consonant that directly follows it, or will completely mutate into any consonant that directly precedes it. For example, /ynken/ → /yŋken/ "walls"; and /unəkno/ → /unəkko/ "the wall". This affects spelling as well.

Nasals

Stops that precede nasals become nasals, and /n/ will assimilate to the place of articulation of any adjacent consonant. For example: /ekni/ → /eŋni/ → /eŋŋi/ "the man".

Fricatives

Fricatives devoice when adjacent to other obstruents, or when ending a syllable. The exception is /ʃ/, which may occur syllable-initially, but rarely appears in consonant clusters in the same syllable. Sequences of /z/ + another fricative or /tʃ/ also yield /ʃ/. Non-sibilant fricatives following nasals, /l/, or a pause tend to become pronounced as voiced stops rather than as voiceless fricatives. When not preceding a consonant, /z/ is pronounced [ts] at the beginning of a word. Although [ts] is not regarded as a separate phoneme, it is sometimes distinguished in certain orthographies.

Liquids

Dental obstruents /t/ and /ð/ may not precede /l/. Thus /l/ changes to /ŭ/ in this context.

Epenthesis

In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /ɑŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ ĭk/ → /ʒɑɣ nɑmvɑllet ɑĭ lĭk/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.

Alternations

Some words alternate velar and postalveolar consonants. This reflects palatalization in former stages of the language that have yielded some unpredictable irregularities. For example, /vorəɣ/ "mountain", becomes /vørʒen/ "mountains".

Phonetics

Consonants

Labials

In older stages of Shaj, all labials were bilabial. However, labial fricatives in Velshaj are in free variation between their bilabial and labiodental counterparts. Thus, Velshaj may be pronounced [βelʃaĭ] or [velʃaĭ], with the latter pronunciation becoming more frequent.

Coronals

Most coronal consonants are apico-dental. These include /l/, /t̪/, /ð/, and /n/. The lateral and nasal may be in free variation between their dental and alveolar counterparts. Otherwise, /z/, /r/, and /t/ are strictly apico-alveolar. /t/ is sometimes transcribed as /ʈ/ or /ṭ/ to further distinguish it from /t̪/. The rhotic /r/ is usually a tap [ɾ], which devoices at the ends of words, or becomes a trill [r] at the beginnings of words, or when doubled.

Palatals and Postalveolars

The postalveolar consonants /ʒ/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/ may alternatively be realized as retroflex, or apico-palatal consonants. The sequences /nĭ/, /lĭ/, and /ŭĭ/, may be realized as true dorso-palatal consonants [ɲ], [ʎ], and [ɥ], respectively before vowels.

Velars and Uvualrs

The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /ɣroɣɑ/ "royal" → [ʁoʕɑ]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /ɣroɣɣɑ/ "the queen" → [ʁoħːɑ]).

Voiced Stops

Although voiced stops disappeared as phonemes early in the history of Shaj, they appear as allophones of other phonemes. Voiced stops are in free variation with their voiceless counterparts, except when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal, in which case they are voiceless, and maybe aspirated. Voiced stops also occur in free variation with their voiced fricative counterparts when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal. Otherwise, they are fricative. Voiced stops in loanwords are substituted by voiceless plosives.

Examples of Voiced Stops

/velʃɑĭ/ = [βelʃɑĭ] or [belʃɑĭ] /nɑmvellet̪/ = [nɑmβellet] or [nɑmbellet̪] /pɑnðriʒen/ = [pɑnðriʒen] or [pɑndriʒen], but not [bɑnðridʒen] /ʒaɣ/ = [ʒax] or [dʒax] /tʃɑrpel/ = [tʃɑrpel] or [tʃɑrbel], but not [dʒɑrpel] or [dʒɑrbel] /ɣɑləm/ = [ɣɑləm] or [ɡɑləm] /kɑmpel/ = [kɑmpel], but not [ɡɑmbel]

Gemination

When two of the same consonant are next to each other, they are geminated. Obstruents are voiceless and sonorants are voiced. The phoneme /ɾ/ becomes a trill [r(ː)] when geminated.

Summary Chart (WOP)

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal
Nasal	/m/	/n/			[ɲ]	/ŋ/
Voiced Fricative	/v/	/ð/	/z/	/ʒ/		/ɣ/	[ʁ]	[ʕ]
Voiceless Fricative	[f]	[θ]	[s]	/ʃ/		[x]	[χ]	[ħ]
Lateral		/l/			[ʎ]

Vowels and Semivowels

Open Vowels

Phonemically there are two open vowels /ɑ/ and /æ/. The open back vowel is in free variation with its central or front counterpart [a]. The falling diphthong /ĭɑ/ is often pronounced [jæ]. The open front vowel ranges between [æ], [ɛ], and [e], being more open in closed syllables.

Lax Vowels

Mid and high monophthongs in closed syllables tend to become lax. /ni/ → [ni], /nið/ → [nɪθ].

Semivowels

Semivowels are typically realized as consonants before vowels, or as non syllabic vowels in rising diphthongs. When /ĭ/ is the only vowel in a syllable, it is pronounced the same as /i/.

Schwa

The schwa, though always written, may disappear after a consonant, or cause a following nasal or liquid to become syllabic. For example, /vorəɣ/ "mountain" → [vorx]; or /muʒər/ "cattle" → [muʒr̩]. The vowel itself is in free variation with any non-open, unround, back or centralized sound.

Umlaut and Falling Diphthongs

In younger, non-standard dialects, rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/ can alternatively be pronounced as falling diphthongs [wi] and [we], respectively. [wi] is still distinguished from the "rising" diphthong [uj].

Morphology

Nouns

Most parts of Noun Phrases (NPs) in Velshaj merge together into a single word. For example /rɑnəɣtʃɑrpelloĭn/ is one word meaning "in the red hat". The adjective prefixes to the noun, the article suffixes to the noun, and the postposition suffixes to the entire NP: /rɑnəɣ- tʃɑrpel -lo -ĭn/ red- hat -the -in

Personal Pronouns

Pronouns do not decline for case. Instead, position in the sentence determines part of sentence.

Clusivity

There are three first person pronouns, /ʒɑɣ/ 1sg., and /roz/ or /ez/ 1pl. /roz/ means "we" and includes the second person. /ez/ means "we" and excludes the second person.

Register

There are many second person pronouns, each with their own specific uses. /ĭĭt/ is singular and familiar. It is what to use when addressing someone well known like a friend. Von is plural and familiar. It is what to use when addressing many people at once, but like /ĭĭt/, it implies a certain degree of familiarity and informality. /ʒĭ/ is formal and either singular or plural. It is what to use when addressing any number of people who are not known very well, or who have a different social status.

Summary Chart

	Singlar	Plural
First Person Exclusive	ʒɑɣ	ez
First Person Inclusive		roz
Second Person Familiar	ĭĭt	von
Second Person Formal	ʒĭ	ʒĭ

Determiners and Gender

Definite articles, distal demonstratives, and third-person pronouns are all the same in Shaj. /nĭɑ/ means "they" or "it" or "that" or "the". /nĭ/ means "this", and /nĭen/ means "these". Neither /nĭ/ nor /nĭen/ denote gender. Likewise, /ɑr/ means both "one" and "a/an", and also does not denote gender. Shaj has five "genders", which are only marked on definite articles, distal demonstratives, or third-person pronouns. They are as follow:

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter

These three genders may refer to people or to animals. Groups of all masculine things are masculine, but groups of people or animals of different genders are neuter.

Natural and Artificial Gender

The "natural" gender refers to non-human, non-animal things and phenomena as they occur in their natural state. The category covers plant life like /kŭelennĭĭ/ "the trees", but also celestial bodies like /zĭellu/ "the sun", or forces of nature like /ĭĭrru/ "the wind". Natural gender is also used for geographical locations like /vorəɣɣu/ "the mountain". Sometimes totems or deities are natural gender, rather than masculine or feminine. Abstract nouns are neutral gender instead of artificial or natural.

Summary Chart

	Singlar	Plural
Masculine	ni	nin
Feminine	nɑ	nɑn
Neuter	nĭɑ	nen
Natural	nu	nĭĭ
Artificial	no	net

Syntax

Noun phrase

Agglutination

Most parts of Noun Phrases (NPs) in Velshaj merge together into a single word. For example rɑnəɣtʃɑrpelloĭn is one word meaning "in the red hat". The adjective prefixes to the noun, the article suffixes to the noun, and the postposition suffixes to the entire NP:

rɑnəɣtʃɑrpelloĭn rɑnəɣ- tʃɑrpel -lo -ĭn red- hat -the -in in the red hat

Possession

The possessum becomes attached to its possessor by means of the morpheme -u-. See the below examples:

vroĭuʒɑɣ vroĭ -u- ʒɑɣ friend -POS- 1SG my friend

ðozuvroĭuʒɑɣ ðoz -u- vroĭ -u- ʒɑɣ dog -POS- friend -POS- 1SG my friend's dog

Adjuncts

Adjectives typically prefix the noun that they modify. Otherwise, they take the suffix -ɑ and follow the noun phrase. Adverbs follow the verb, adjective, or adverb that they modify, and take the suffix -tɑ. Postpositions that do not have objects also take the suffix -tɑ.

Verb phrase

Copula

I

In the younger varieties of Shaj, the structural copula is not overt, like in Russian, Uzbek, or AAE. Therefore, eŋŋi urɑ ĭk means 'the man is tall,' but is literally "the man tall'. In more formal or archaic was of speaking, the verb i means "am, is, etc." Therefore, Eŋŋi urɑ i ĭk means 'The man is tall.'

Zu

Like Southwest Romance languages, Shaj has two words that mean to be. I (as stated above) correlates to Spanish ser, but zu correlates to Spanish estar. Zu is not omitted, and bears a more distinct meaning of feeling. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ɣovɑ zu can mean 'I am happy', or 'I feel happy'.

Izer

The word izer is a hold-over from Old Shaj (i-sêr) that litterally means 'he is' (or be-that). In modern Shaj, it means 'being', or 'to be'. It is used in the phrase etʃizeren, which means 'human beings'. It often takes the place of itu or zutu, both meaning 'to be' in modern Shaj.

Lexical Verbs

Tense

Verbs are not conjugated. Instead, the verb appears uninflected near the end of a clause, and all information about tense, aspect, or mood follow the verb as separate words. For example ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ur means, 'I'm going to go to the castle', but ʒɑɣ yŋkɑlĭɑɑ ŭĭr ɑĭ means 'I went to the castle'.

Past

Usually, the past tense is marked with the word ɑĭ after the verb. However, t̪rɑ is used in rare cases where the speaker is describing an event they have never experienced. Therefore, t̪rɑ is called the historic past, and is often used when telling stories.

Present

Usually, the present tense is left unmarked, but in younger, vernacular varieties of Shaj, u has come to mean present tense.

Future

Shaj splits the future into three parts: far, near, and imminent. The far future corresponds mostly with English's use of 'will', and describes an action that has not yet happened, but is sure to happen sometime. The near future corresponds mostly with English's 'going to', and describes an action that will happen soon, or within a relatively short period of time. The imminent future can be thought of as a subset of the near future, and is used to describe and event that is about to happen imminently or immediately. They are marked vi, ur, and tʃĭ, respectively.

Aspect

Perfect and Imperfect

Shaj distinguishes many aspects buy using one of the following words between the verb and the tense. There is ɑv, which indicates perfect mood, just like english 'have'. For example, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv means 'I have eaten'. There is also ɑv ɑĭ, which indicates pluperfect mood, just like english 'had'. Therefore, ʒɑɣ ĭe ɑv ɑĭ means 'I had eaten'.

Perfective and Imperfective

There is also ĭk, which occurs at the end of many Shaj sentences. It is used to make the meaning of a sentence apply to all or any instance in time. Confused? It kind of means 'usually' or 'always'. When used in the past tense, it has a similar meaning to Spanish's imperfecto. However, unlike Spanish, Shaj can use ĭk in sentences of any tense. For example, nɑ ĭovɑ! means 'She is angry [because of something that just happened]', but Na ĭovɑ ĭk! means 'She is angry' as in 'she is an angry person'.

Imperfective aspect can co-occur with perfect aspect. For example, ni vorəɣɣĭɑ yvvŭĭr ɑv means 'he has [now] climbed the mountain, but ni vorəɣɣĭɑ yvvŭĭr ɑv ĭk means 'he did climb the mountain', or 'he has climbed the mountain at some point'.