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'''Celabrian''' (Celabrian: ''girṭeʒ'' [ˈɡiɾtʼɛd͡z]) is an Indo-European language.
'''Celabrian''' (Celabrian: ''gərṭeʒ'' [ɡəɾˈtʼed͡z]) is an Indo-European language.
{{Infobox language
|name = Celabrian
|nativename = gərṭeʒ<!-- <br />Razdă Γn̄ффindskă <br />𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 𐌲𐌿𐌸𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐍃𐌺𐌰-->
|pronunciation = ɡəɾˈtʼed͡z
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Black Sea
<!--
|states =
|nation =
|speakers = -->
|date = 2016
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|ancestor = Proto-Celabrian
|ancestor2 = Old Celabrian
|ancestor3 = Classical Celabrian
<!--
|iso1 =
|iso2 =
|iso3 = -->
|script        = [[Celabrian]], [[w:Latin_alphabet|Latin]], [[w:Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[w:Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]
<!--
|agency        = -->
}}
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
===Etymology===
===Etymology===
The name ''Celabrian'' comes from the tribal name ''Celabr<!--i-->i'' (Greek: Κελαβρ<!--ι-->οί) < Proto-Celabrian ''*kelabʰr<!--ij-->as'' <!--"of a warrior" < ''*kelabʰā́r'' -->"warrior" (compare Modern Celabrian ''č̣łavr'' [t͡ʃʼɫavɾ]) < ''*kelas'' "spear" (< PIE ''*gʷelH-'' "to throw, pierce"; compare Modern Celabrian ''č̣ał'' [t͡ʃʼaɫ] "weapon") + <!--''-bʰār''-->''*-bʰras'' "bearer" (< PIE ''*bʰer-'' "to bear, carry").
The name ''Celabrian'' comes from the tribal name ''Celabr<!--i-->i'' (Greek: Κελαβρ<!--ι-->οί) < Proto-Celabrian ''*kelabʰr<!--ij-->as'' <!--"of a warrior" < ''*kelabʰā́r'' -->"warrior" (compare Modern Celabrian ''č̣łavṙ'' [t͡ʃʼɫavr]) < ''*kelas'' "spear" (< PIE ''*gʷelH-'' "to throw, pierce"; compare Modern Celabrian ''č̣ał'' [t͡ʃʼaɫ] "weapon") + <!--''-bʰār''-->''*-bʰras'' "bearer" (thematization of earlier ''*-bʰēr'' < PIE ''*bʰer-'' "to bear, carry").


The endonym '''''girṭeʒ''''' comes from '''''gir''''' "Celabrian" (< PC ''*wīras'' "man" < PIE ''*wiHrós'' "man, warrior") + '''''ṭeʒ''''' "language" (< PC ''*tancūs'' "tongue" < PIE ''*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s''). The formal language is known as '''''bonṭeʒ''''' [ˈbontʼɛd͡z], from '''''bon''''' "clear, eloquent" (< PC ''*bʰānas'' < PIE ''*bʰeh₂-'' "to shine; to speak"). The classical language is known as '''''akrəṭeʒ''''' [ˈakʰɾətʼɛd͡z] (Classical Celabrian: '''''akʰra tanci''''' [ˈakʰɾa ˈtant͡si]), from '''''akr''''' "precise, sharp" (< PC ''*akʰras'' "sharp" < PIE ''*h₂ḱrós''). The colloquial language is known as '''''łøðṭeʒ''''' [ˈɫ̪œtʼːɛd͡z], from '''''łøð''''' "masses, common folk" (< PC ''*aleudʰis'' < PIE ''*h₁léwdʰis'' "people").
The endonym '''''gərṭeʒ''''' comes from '''''gər''''' "Celabrian" (< PC ''*wīras'' "man" < PIE ''*wiHrós'' "man, warrior") + '''''ṭeʒ''''' "language" (< PC ''*tancūs'' "tongue" < PIE ''*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s''). The formal language is known as '''''bonṭeʒ''''' [bonˈtʼed͡z], from '''''bon''''' "clear, eloquent" (< PC ''*bʰānas'' < PIE ''*bʰeh₂-'' "to shine; to speak"). The classical language is known as '''''akṙəṭeʒ''''' [ˌakʰrəˈtʼed͡z] (Classical Celabrian: '''''akʰra tanci''''' [ˈakʰɾa ˈtant͡si]), from '''''akṙ''''' "precise, sharp" (< PC ''*akʰras'' "sharp" < PIE ''*h₂ḱrós''). The colloquial language is known as '''''łøðṭeʒ''''' [ɫ̪œtʼˈtʼed͡z], from '''''łøð''''' "masses, common folk" (< PC ''*aleudʰis'' < PIE ''*h₁léwdʰis'' "people").
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
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==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
[[File:Celabrian Alphabet.png|thumb|The Celabrian alphabet]]
Celabrian is written with the Celabrian alphabet, which is ultimately derived from the Phoenician alphabet via Ancient Greek. In this article, a Romanization is used for convenience.
The majority of the letters are inherited from Ancient Greek. Some are internal developments, from variants or ligatures of other letters, and some are later borrowings from Greek. A few letters have an unknown or uncertain origin.
The names of the letters are Celabrian innovations.
====Celabrian alphabet====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Celabrian alphabet
! rowspan="2"|Letter !! rowspan="2"|Romanization !! rowspan="2"|IPA !! colspan="3"| Name !! colspan="2"| Origin !! rowspan="2"| Remarks
|-
! Romanization !! IPA !! Meaning !! Script !! Letter
|-
|  || a || {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || až || {{IPA|/ɑʒ/}} || snake || Greek || Α || Inherited.
|-
| || b || {{IPA|/b/}} || boz || {{IPA|/boz/}} || arm || Greek || Β || Inherited.
|-
| || h || {{IPA|/ɦ ~ ʁ/}} || haθ || {{IPA|/ɦɑθ/}} || stranger, foreigner || Greek || Γ || Inherited.
|-
| || d || {{IPA|/d/}} || dur || {{IPA|/duɾ/}} || door || Greek || Δ || Inherited.
|-
| || e || {{IPA|/e/}} || ječ || {{IPA|/jet͡ʃʰ/}} || belly, guts, inside || Greek || Ε || Inherited.
|-
| || g || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || got || {{IPA|/ɡotʰ/}} || axe || Greek || F || Inherited.
|-
| || z || {{IPA|/z/}} || zan || {{IPA|/zɑn/}} || goose || Greek || Ζ || Inherited.
|-
| || æ || {{IPA|/æ/}} || jæʒ || {{IPA|/jæd͡z/}} || goat || Greek || Η || Inherited.
|-
| || t || {{IPA|/tʰ/}} || tøk || {{IPA|/tʰøkʰ/}} || sprout, seedling || Greek || Θ || Inherited.
|-
| || ǵ || {{IPA|/ɟ/}} || ǵuq || {{IPA|/ɟuʔ/}} || yoke || Greek || Ι || From an early variant of ''jič''.
|-
| || i || {{IPA|/i/}} || jič || {{IPA|/jit͡ʃʰ/}} || road, path || Greek || Ι || Inherited.
|-
| || ḳ || {{IPA|/kʼ/}} || ḳṙiv || {{IPA|/kʼriv/}} || carving || Greek || Κ || Inherited.
|-
| || ł || {{IPA|/ɫ/}} || łæš || {{IPA|/ɫæʃ/}} || (< ''læše'' "plough") || Greek || Λ || Inherited.
|-
| || c || {{IPA|/t͡sʰ/}} || cək || {{IPA|/t͡sʰəkʰ/}} || peg, hook || Greek || Ψ || From an early variant of ''sap''.
|-
| || m || {{IPA|/m/}} || myš || {{IPA|/myʃ/}} || mouse || Greek || Μ || Inherited.
|-
| || n || {{IPA|/n/}} || niθ || {{IPA|/niθ/}} || seat, chair; sitting, meeting; situation || Greek || Ν || Inherited.
|-
| || č || {{IPA|/t͡ʃʰ/}} || čar || {{IPA|/t͡ʃʰɑɾ/}} || dry || Greek || Ξ || Inherited.
|-
| || u || {{IPA|/u/}} || vun || {{IPA|/vun/}} || water || Greek || Ο || Inherited.
|-
| || ṗ || {{IPA|/pʼ/}} || ṗak || {{IPA|/pʼɑkʰ/}} || club || Greek || Π || Inherited.
|-
| || c̣ || {{IPA|/t͡sʼ/}} || c̣əm || {{IPA|/t͡sʼəm/}} || molar || Greek || Ϻ (''san'') || Inherited.
|-
| || ḳ́ || {{IPA|/cʼ/}}|| ḳ́ø || {{IPA|/cʼø/}} || cattle || Greek || Ϙ || Inherited.
|-
| || r || {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || rot || {{IPA|/ɾotʰ/}} || (< ''ṙot'' "cane") || Greek || Ρ || Inherited.
|-
| || ǯ || {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} || ǯarm || {{IPA|/d͡ʒɑɾm/}} || warm || ? || ? || Origin unknown.
|-
| || š || {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || šaš || {{IPA|/ʃɑʃ/}} || (< ''šašə'' "comb") || Greek || Σ || Inherited.
|-
| || ṭ || {{IPA|/tʼ/}} || ṭaš || {{IPA|/tʼɑʃ/}} || tear || Greek || Τ || Inherited.
|-
| || ň || {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || ňam || {{IPA|/ɲɑm/}} || shoot || ? || ? || Origin unknown.
|-
| || v || {{IPA|/v/}} || vuš || {{IPA|/vuʃ/}} || ox || Greek || Υ || Inherited.
|-
| || p || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || pit || {{IPA|/pʰitʰ/}} || feather || Greek || Φ || Inherited.
|-
| || č̣ || {{IPA|/t͡ʃʼ/}}|| č̣alč || {{IPA|/t͡ʃʼɑltʃʰ/}} || crossbow || ? || ? || Origin unknown.
|-
| || k || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || kap || {{IPA|/kʰɑpʰ/}} || head || Greek || Χ || Inherited.
|-
| || ř || {{IPA|/ɹ/}} || řeł || {{IPA|/ɹeɫ/}} || gerboa || Greek? || Ϻ? || Origin uncertain. Probably from Greek Ϻ (''san'').
|-
| || s || {{IPA|/s/}} || sap || {{IPA|/sɑpʰ/}} || hoof || Greek || Ψ || Inherited.
|-
| || o || {{IPA|/o/}} || vobl || {{IPA|/vobl/}} || apple || Greek || Ω || Inherited.
|-
| || j || {{IPA|/j/}} || jeł || {{IPA|/jeɫ/}} || deer || Greek || Ι || Originally a variant of ''jič''.
|-
| || ó || {{IPA|/o/}} || vóḱ || {{IPA|/voc/}} || eye || Greek || Ο || A later borrowing.
|-
| || l || {{IPA|/l/}} || løv || {{IPA|/løv/}} || child || ? || ? || Origin unknown.
|-
| || x́ || {{IPA|/ç/}} || x́æł || {{IPA|/çæɫ/}} || heat of the sun || ? || ? || Origin uncertain. <!--Perhaps borrowed from or related to Phrygian Ψ h (of uncertain pronunciation), or from a variant of Greek Ϻ.-->
|-
| || ə || {{IPA|/ə/}} || ət || {{IPA|/ətʰ/}} || face || Armenian || Ը || Borrowed from Armenian.
|-
| || θ || {{IPA|/θ/}} || θæh || {{IPA|/θæʁ/}} || path || Greek || Θ || A later borrowing.
|-
| || f || {{IPA|/f/}} || far || {{IPA|/fɑɾ/}} || sparrow || Greek || Φ || A later borrowing.
|-
| || x || {{IPA|/h ~ χ/}} || xał || {{IPA|/hɑɫ ~ χɑɫ/}} || large fish, whale ||  Greek || Χ || A later borrowing.
|-
| || y || {{IPA|/y/}} || vyrḱ || {{IPA|/vyɾcʰ/}} || jar || Greek || Υ || A later borrowing.
|-
| || ø || {{IPA|/ø/}} || vøš || {{IPA|/vøʃ/}} || ear || Greek || ΟΙ || Originally a ligature of ''vun'' + ''jič''.
|-
| || ŋ || {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || ŋaš || {{IPA|/ŋɑʃ/}} || silence || Greek || ΓΓ || Originally a ligature of ''haθ'' + ''haθ''.
|-
| || ž || {{IPA|/ʒ/}} || žam || {{IPA|/ʒɑm/}} || hour || ? || ? || Originally a variant of ''ǯar''.
|-
| || q || {{IPA|/ʔ ~ q/}} || qłuθ || {{IPA|/qɫuθ/}} || servant || Greek || Κ || Originally a variant of ''ḳṙiv''.
|-
| || ḱ || {{IPA|/cʰ/}} || ḱøt || {{IPA|/cʰøtʰ/}} || fight || Greek || Χ || Originally a variant of ''kap''.
|-
| || ʒ || {{IPA|/d͡z/}} || ʒoč || {{IPA|/d͡zot͡ʃʰ/}} || (< ''ʒočə'' "whip")|| Greek || Ζ || Originally a variant of ''zan''.
|-
| || ð || {{IPA|/ð/}} || ðiš || {{IPA|/ðiʃ/}} || axe, adze || Greek || Δ || Originally a variant of ''dur''.
|-
| || ṙ || {{IPA|/r/}} || ṙuž || {{IPA|/ruʒ/}} || rye || Latin? || R? || Mostly likely borrowed from Latin R. Alternatively, may be from a variant of ''rot''.
|-
|}
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant phonemes of Standard Celabrian
|+ Consonant phonemes of Standard Celabrian
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! Alveolar
! Alveolar
! Postalveolar
! Postalveolar
! Palatal
! Palatal<small><sup>1</sup></small>
! Velar
! Velar<small><sup>2</sup></small>
! Uvular
! Uvular<small><sup>3</sup></small>
! Glottal
! Glottal<small><sup>3</sup></small>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| ''m'' [m]
| ''m'' /m/
|
|
| ''n'' [n]
| ''n'' /n/
|
|
|''ň'' [ɲ]
|''ň'' /ɲ/
|''ŋ'' [ŋ]
|''ŋ'' /ŋ/
|
|
|
|
Line 47: Line 187:
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! voiceless
! voiceless
| ''p'' [pʰ]
| ''p'' /pʰ/
|
|colspan="2"|  ''t'' /tʰ/
|  ''t'' [tʰ]
|
|
| ''ḱ'' [cʰ]
| ''ḱ'' /cʰ/
| ''k'' [kʰ]
| ''k'' /kʰ/
| colspan="2"| ''q'' [q ~ ʔ]<small><sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2"| ''q'' /q ~ ʔ/
|-
|-
! voiced
! voiced
| ''b'' [b]
| ''b'' /b/
|
|colspan="2"| ''d'' /d/
| ''d'' [d]
|
|
| ''ǵ'' [ɟ]
| ''ǵ'' /ɟ/
| ''g'' [ɡ]
| ''g'' /ɡ/
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! ejective
! ejective
| ''ṗ'' [pʼ]
| ''ṗ'' /pʼ/
|
|colspan="2"| ''ṭ'' /tʼ/
| ''ṭ'' [tʼ]
|  
|  
| ''ḳ́'' [cʼ]
| ''ḳ́'' /cʼ/
| ''ḳ'' [kʼ]
| ''ḳ'' /kʼ/
|
|
|
|
Line 79: Line 216:
|  
|  
|
|
| ''c'' [t͡sʰ]
| ''c'' /t͡sʰ/
| ''č'' [t͡ʃʰ]
| ''č'' /t͡ʃʰ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|
|
| ''ʒ'' [d͡z]
| ''ʒ'' /d͡z/
| ''ǯ'' [d͡ʒ]
| ''ǯ'' /d͡ʒ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 99: Line 236:
|  
|  
|
|
| ''c̣'' [t͡sʼ]
| ''c̣'' /t͡sʼ/
| ''č̣'' [t͡ʃʼ]
| ''č̣'' /t͡ʃʼ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 108: Line 245:
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! voiceless
! voiceless
| ''f'' [f]
| ''f'' /f/
| ''θ'' [θ]
| ''θ'' /θ/
| ''s'' [s]
| ''s'' /s/
| ''š'' [ʃ]
| ''š'' /ʃ/
| ''x́'' [ç]
| ''x́'' /ç/
|
|
| colspan="2" | ''x'' [χ ~ h]<small><sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" | ''x'' /χ ~ h/
|-
|-
!  voiced
!  voiced
| ''v'' [v]
| ''v'' /v/
| ''ð'' [ð]
| ''ð'' /ð/
| ''z'' [z]
| ''z'' /z/
| ''ž'' [ʒ]
| ''ž'' /ʒ/
| ''j'' [ʝ]
| rowspan="2" | ''j'' /ʝ ~ j/<small><sup>6</sup></small>
|
|
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ''h'' [ɦ ~ ʁ]<small><sup>1</sup></small>
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ''h'' /ɦ ~ ʁ/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
Line 130: Line 267:
|
|
|
|
| ''ř'' [ɻ]
| ''ř'' /ɹ/
|
|
|
|-
|-
! lateral
! lateral
|
|
| ''ł'' [ɫ̪]
| ''ł'' /ɫ/<small><sup>4</sup></small>
| ''l'' [l]
| ''l'' /l/<small><sup>5</sup></small>
|  
|  
| ''ľ'' [ʎ]
| <!--''ľ'' [ʎ]-->
|  
|  
|
|
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|
|
|
|
| ''ṙ'' [r]
| ''ṙ'' /r/<small><sup>7</sup></small>
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
| ''r'' [ɾ]
| ''r'' /ɾ/
|
|
|
|
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'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''


<small><sup>1</sup></small> The guttural consonants ''q, x'', and ''h'' can be pronounced uvular or glottal depending on environment. The allophones are summarized in the table below. When two pronunciations are given, both are allowed but the first is more common.
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Depending on dialect, the palatal obstruents ''ḱ, ǵ, ḳ́, x́, j'' /cʰ, ɟ, cʼ, ç, ʝ/ may be fronted to [t͡ɕʰ, d͡ʑ, t͡ɕʼ, ɕ, ʑ] or even [t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ, t͡ʃʼ, ʃ, ʒ] (merging with the corresponding postalveolars).
 
<small><sup>2</sup></small> The velar consonants are truly velar when adjacent to front vowels and postvelar otherwise.
 
<small><sup>3</sup></small> The guttural consonants ''q, x'', and ''h'' can be pronounced uvular or glottal depending on environment. The allophones are summarized in the table below. When two pronunciations are given, both are allowed but the first is more common.
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center"
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Phoneme !! rowspan="2" | Adjacent to consonant !! colspan="3" | Not adjacent to consonant
! rowspan="3" | Phoneme !! colspan="4" | In roots !! colspan="2" | In affixes
|-
! rowspan="2" | Adjacent to consonant <br />in same morpheme !! colspan="3" | Otherwise !! rowspan="2" | Adjacent to non-root consonant !! rowspan="2" | Otherwise
|-
|-
! initial !! medial !! final
! initial !! medial !! final
|-
|-
! ''q''  
! ''q''  
| colspan="2" | q || colspan="2" | ʔ ~ q  
| colspan="2" | q || colspan="2" | ʔ ~ q || q || ʔ
|-
|-
! ''x''  
! ''x''  
| χ || colspan="2" | χ ~ h || h ~ χ
| χ || colspan="2" | χ ~ h || h ~ χ || χ || h
|-
|-
! ''h''  
! ''h''  
| ʁ || ɦ || ɦ ~ ʁ || ʁ
| ʁ || ɦ || ɦ ~ ʁ || ʁ || ʁ || ɦ
|-
|-
|}
|}
Note that in some dialects ''q'' is not guttural and is instead merged with ''g''.
<small><sup>4</sup></small> Alveolar [ɫ] before consonants, dental [ɫ̪] otherwise. Unless preceded by a consonant, the dental allophone may instead be pronounced [ð(ˠ)] or [ɮ̪(ˠ)] depending on dialect.
<small><sup>5</sup></small> May be palatalized when adjacent to front vowels.
<small><sup>6</sup></small> Pronounced [ʝ] syllable-initially. Otherwise, pronounced [j]. In non-careful or hypercorrect speech (particularly for speakers of dialects that front palatals), may be pronounced [j] in all environments.
<small><sup>7</sup></small> Pronounced non-distinctively as [r ~ ɾ] after consonants. Otherwise, ''ṙ'' /r/ and ''r'' /ɾ/ are distinct.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Front
! Central
! colspan="2" | Back
! Back
|-
|-
! unrounded
! unrounded
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|-
|-
! Close
! Close
| ''i'' [i]
| ''i'' /i/
| ''y'' [y]
| ''y'' /y/
|
| rowspan="2" | ''ə'' /ə/
| ''u'' [u]
| ''u'' /u/
|-
|-
! Mid
! Mid
| ''e'' [ɛ]
| ''e'' /e/
| ''ø'' [œ]
| ''ø'' /ø/
| ''ə'' [ə]
| ''o, ó'' /o/<small><sup>1</sup></small>
| ''o'' [ɔ]
|-
|-
! Open
! Open
| ''æ'' /æ/
|
|
|
| ''a'' /ɑ/
| ''a'' [a]
|
|
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<small><sup>1</sup></small> The vowels ''o'' and ''ó'' are pronounced identically in Standard Celabrian. The different graphemes represent an etymological distinction: ''o'' comes Classical Celabrian long ''ō'', while ''ó'' corresponds to Classical Celabrian short ''o'' (which was only present in loanwords). Some dialects distinguish these phonemes, pronouncing ''o'' as /ɔ/ and ''ó'' as /o/.


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
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<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
====Vowel harmony====
Celabrian has three vowel harmony systems: high, low, and mixed. These are shown in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Standard Celabrian vowel harmony systems
|-
! rowspan="2" | Harmony system
! colspan="2" | Front
! colspan="2" | Back
|-
! unrounded
! rounded
! unrounded
! rounded
|-
! High
| i
| y
| ə
| u
|-
! Low
| colspan="2" | e
| colspan="2" | a
|-
! Mixed
| colspan="2" | e
| colspan="2" | ə
|-
|}
In this article, the following notation is used to represent vowel harmony in affixes:
*''<u>ə</u>'': high harmonizing vowel (''ə/u/i/y'')
**Represents back allomorphs (''ə/u'') when contrasted with ''<u>i</u>'' (= ''i/y''), and unrounded allomorphs (''ə/i'') when contrasted with ''<u>u</u>'' (= ''u/y'').
*''<u>a</u>'': low harmonizing vowel (''a/e'')
*''<u>e</u>'': mixed harmonizing vowel (''ə/e'')
Harmonizing affixes harmonize with the nearest vowel in the word they are attached to. Vowels within a word do not have to agree in frontness/backness, but they usually do except in compound words.
The mid rounded vowels ''o, ó'', and ''ø'' are not affected by vowel harmony.
====Palatalization====
Velar and guttural consonants in harmonizing affixes are often palatalized when the harmonizing vowel is fronted. In this article, this is indicated with a ring above the consonant:
*k̊: k ~ ḱ
*g̊: g ~ ǵ
*ḳ̊: ḳ ~ ḳ́
*x̊: x ~ x́
*h̊: h ~ j
*q̊: q ~ ǵ
*ŋ̊: ŋ ~ ň
====Voice assimilation====
When a prefix beginning in an obstruent attaches to a word ending in an obstruent, the initial consonant of the prefix assimilates to the final consonant of the root in voicing. If their places of articulation are close enough, there may be complete assimilation. Similarly, a final obstruent in a prefix assimilates to a following obstruent. A similar process takes place with the first component of compound words, but this is not indicated in writing.
====Palatal assimilation====
This occurs when a prefix beginning in ''n'' or ''ł'' follows a word ending in a palatal consonant. In this circumstance:
*n > ň
*ł > l
====Hiatus resolution====
When vowels meet at morpheme boundaries, the following changes take place:
*ə + ə > a
*any other identical vowels merge into one of the same vowel
*a + æ, æ + a > æ
*æ + e, e + æ > e
*ə > disappears / before or after any vowel except ə
*close vowel > disappears / adjacent to homorganic mid vowel
*v is inserted between rounded vowel (o, ø, ó, u, y) and any adjacent vowel
*e; i > je; ji / after any non-rounded vowel
*a > ja / after unrounded front vowel
====Vowel epenthesis====
When an illegal consonant cluster would occur at a morpheme boundary, an epenthetic high vowel is inserted. This vowel harmonizes with the preceding vowel, or the following vowel if there is no preceding vowel.
===Historical phonology===  
===Historical phonology===  
====PIE to Early Proto-Celabrian (PC)====
====PIE to Early Proto-Celabrian (PC)====
Line 236: Line 459:
  *iH > ī
  *iH > ī
  *uH > ū
  *uH > ū
stress shifts (often to penultimate syllable/mora)
  *w, *y > Ø / in long diphthongs
  *w, *y > Ø / in long diphthongs
  *CHC > CaC
  *CHC > CaC
Line 256: Line 480:
  *s > š / r_, u_, K_, i_ (ruki sound law)
  *s > š / r_, u_, K_, i_ (ruki sound law)


  Transcription differences (without sound change):
  Transcription differences without significant sound change:
  *y > j
  *y > j
  *Vy > Vi
  *Vy > Vi
Line 263: Line 487:
====Early PC to Late PC====
====Early PC to Late PC====
  ē > ī / _ns
  ē > ī / _ns
  ē > ā / otherwise
  ē > ā
   In some dialects, this takes place after the palatalization of velars, affecting some words that were reborrowed into the standard dialect.
   In some dialects, this takes place after the palatalization of velars, affecting some words that were reborrowed into the standard dialect.
  ei, eje > ī
  ei, eje > ī
  e > i / with i in following syllable
  e > i / with i in following syllable
  s, š > Ø / _n, _m (lengthen preceding vowel, even if intervening sonorant is present)
s > š / i_, ī_ (ruki is still productive at this point)
  s, š > Ø / _n, _m (lengthen preceding vowel, even if intervening consonant is present)
  s > Ø / #_r, #_l
  s > Ø / #_r, #_l
  sr, šr > rr / non-initial
  sr, šr > rr / non-initial
  sl, šl > ll / non-initial
  sl, šl > ll / non-initial
  velar (k, kʰ, gʰ) > palatal (ḱ, ḱʰ, ǵʰ) / before front vowels or j - at this stage, palatalization is strictly allophonic
  velar stop (k, kʰ, gʰ) > palatal stop (ḱ, ḱʰ, ǵʰ) / before front vowels or j - at this stage, palatalization is allophonic
 
====Late PC to Old Celabrian====
====Late PC to Old Celabrian====
  ḱ; ḱʰ; ǵʰ > č /t͡ʃ/; čʰ /t͡ʃʰ/; ǯ /d͡ʒʱ/
  ḱ; ḱʰ; ǵʰ > č /t͡ʃ/; čʰ /t͡ʃʰ/; ǯ /d͡ʒʱ/
  stop consonant + tʰ > ttʰ
  stop consonant + t(ʰ) > ttʰ
  s, t > Ø / _#
  ns > s / when non-final (lengthens preceding vowel)
  s > ž / #_
s > š / ī_
  s > h / V_V
-s, -š, -t > disappear / _#
  sT; sP; sC; sČ; sK > θ; f; s; š; x
-r > disappear / ō_#
  s- > ž / #_
  -s- > h / V_V
  sT; sP; sC; sČ; sK > htʰ /θ͡t̪͡θ/; hpʰ /φ͡p͡φ/; hcʰ /s͡t͡s/; hčʰ /ʃ͡t͡ʃ/; hkʰ /x͡k͡x/
  Kš > ččʰ
  Kš > ččʰ
  Ps, Ts > ss
  Ps, Ts, ss > ccʰ
  sw > xʷ
  sw > xv
  w > gʷ / #_
  w > gʷ / #_, after sonorant
  Pj > *Pš > šš (where P represents any labial stop)
  Pj > *Pš > ččʰ (where P represents any labial stop)
  Tj > ČČ
  Tj > ČČ
  Cj > CC
  Cj > CC
  Čj > ČČ
  Čj > ČČ
  nj; lj; rj; sj > ň; ľ; ř; š / #_, C_
  nj; lj; rj; sj > ň; ľ; ř; š / #_, C_
  nj; lj; rj; sj > ňň; ľľ; řř; šš / V_V
  nj; lj; rj; sj > ňň; ľľ; řř; šš / V_V, V_#
  mj > mň
  mj > mň
  Kn > ň-, -ňň-
  Kn > ň-, -ňň-
Line 294: Line 523:
  Pn > mn
  Pn > mn
  j > ǵ / #_
  j > ǵ / #_
  bʰ; dʰ > b; d
  bʰ; dʰ; ʒʰ; ǯʰ > b; d; ʒ; ǯ
  gʰ > g / after sonorant
  gʰ > g / adjacent to nasal
  gʰ > ɣ / otherwise
  gʰ > ɣ / otherwise
  e > ja / before a, in closed syllables
  e > ja / before a; in non-final closed syllables
  e > je / otherwise except when immediately followed by nasal
  e > je / except when final, in diphthong, or immediately followed by nasal
*Note: The above two changes do not affect "e" in loanwords, probably because they differed in quality. After these changes occurred, the borrowed "e" merged with its native equivalent.
  ō > vø̄-, -ø̄-
  ō > vø̄-, -ø̄-
  ū > vȳ, -ȳ-
  ū > vȳ, -ȳ-
Line 304: Line 534:
  eu > jø̄, -ø̄-
  eu > jø̄, -ø̄-
  au > vø̄, -ø̄-
  au > vø̄, -ø̄-
o (from loanwords) > vo / #_
e > je / #_
ē > jē / #_
ā > vā / #_
Transcription differences without significant sound change:
  w > v
<!--
=====Old Celabrian phonology=====
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Old Celabrian consonants
! colspan="2" |
! Labial
! Dental
! Alveolar
! Postalveolar/<br />Palatal
! Velar
! Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| '''μ''' ''m'' [m]
|
| '''ν''' ''n'' [n]
| '''νι''' ''ň'' [ɲ]
|('''γ''' ''n'' [ŋ])<small><sup>1</sup></small>
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! aspirated
| '''φ''' ''pʰ'' [pʰ]
|
| '''θ''' ''tʰ'' [tʰ]
|
| '''χ''' ''kʰ'' [kʰ]
|
|-
! tenuis
| '''π''' ''p'' [p]
|
| '''τ''' ''t'' [tʼ]
|
| '''κ, ϙ''' ''k'' [k]
|
|-
! voiced
| '''β''' ''b'' [b]
|
| '''δ''' ''d'' [d]
| '''γι''' ''ǵ'' [ɟ]
| ('''γ''' ''g'' [ɡ])<small><sup>2</sup></small>,<br /> '''ϝ''' ''gʷ'' [ɡʷ]<small><sup>3</sup></small>
|
|-
! rowspan="4" | Affricate
! aspirated
|
|
| '''ψ''' ''cʰ'' [t͡sʰ]
| '''ξ''' ''čʰ'' [t͡ʃʰ] 
|
|
|-
! tenuis
|
|
| '''ͳ''' ''c'' [t͡s]
| '''ͳ''' ''č'' [t͡ʃ]
|
|
|-
! voiced
|
|
| '''ζ''' ''ʒ'' [d͡z]
| '''ζ''' ''ǯ'' [d͡ʒ]
|
|
|-
! prefricatized<sup><small>4</small></sup>
| '''cφ''' ''hpʰ'' [φ͡pφ]
| '''cθ''' ''htʰ'' [θ͡t̪θ]
| '''cψ''' ''hcʰ'' [s͡t͡s]
| '''cξ''' ''hčʰ'' [ʃ͡t͡ʃ]
| '''cχ''' ''hkʰ'' [x͡k͡x]
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! voiceless
|
|
|
| '''σ''' ''š'' [ʃ]
|
| '''c''' ''h'' [h]
|-
!  voiced
|
|
|
| '''ρσ''' ''ž'' [ʒ]
| '''γ''' ''ɣ'' [ɣ]
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximant
|
|
| '''λ''' ''l'' [l]
| '''ι''' ''j'' [j], '''λι''' ''ľ'' [ʎ]
| '''υ''' ''v'' [w]
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Trill/Flap
|
|
| '''ρ''' ''r'' [r]
| '''ρι''' ''ř'' [rʲ]
|
|
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Old Celabrian vowels
|-
!
! colspan="2" | Front
! Back
|-
! Close
| '''ι''' ''i'', '''ει''' ''ī'' [i, iː]
| '''υι''' ''ȳ'' [yː]
| '''υ''' ''u'', '''ου''' ''ū'' [u, uː]
|-
! Mid
| '''ε''' ''e'', '''η''' ''ē'' [e, eː]
| '''οι''' ''ø̄'' [øː]
| '''ο''' ''o'', '''ω''' ''ō'' [o, oː]
|-
! Open
| colspan="3" | '''α''' ''a'', '''ᾱ''' ''ā'' [a, aː]
|}
|}
--
'''Notes:'''
--
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Allophone of ''n'' before nasals.
--
<small><sup>2</sup></small> Allophone of ''ɣ'' adjacent to nasals.
--
<small><sup>3</sup></small> All consonants can be labialized, but only ''gʷ'' behaves as an independent phoneme.
--
<sup><small>4</small></sup> The prefricatized affricates may have been geminate affricates or fricatives.
-->
====Old Celabrian to Classical Celabrian====
htʰ; hpʰ; hcʰ; hčʰ; hkʰ > θ; f; s; š; x
cʰ; ʒ; čʰ > s; z; š / except after n, l
ž, ř > ř /ɹ/
ā > ō / except in final syllable
nasal + liquid > stop homorganic to nasal is inserted between them
NC > C / #_
Unstressed final syllable vowels (does not affect monosyllabic words):
  short vowel > ə / when not followed by consonant, if dropping would lead to forbidden consonant cluster
  short vowel > disappears / when not followed by consonant, otherwise
  ā > a
  ī, ē, ø̄, ȳ > i
Stressed final syllable vowels (including in monosyllabic words):
  ȳ; ø̄ > ī; ē
====Classical Celabrian to Standard Modern Celabrian====
v > ʷ / C_
a > ə / before nasal in closed syllable
-ə > disappears / word-finally
final unstressed -a > -ə
ē > æ / _C
long vowel > short
e; i; ø; y > a; ɨ; o; u / Cʷ_ (but not v_)
a; ə; e; o; ɨ; u > e; e; i; ø; i; y / when followed by i in following syllable
ji > i / C_
gʷ > g
velar > palatal / before front vowel or j
Cʷ > uC / after stressed, open vowel
Cʷ > C / otherwise
iu > ju / _C
nj; (l)lj; (r)rj > ň; ľ; ř
j > disappears / after palatal or post-alveolar consonant
v > disappears / after rounded vowel in unstressed syllables
ou > o / _C
u > f/v / V_C (agrees with following consonant in voicing)
final unstressed -i > disappears
b; d; ǯ; ǵ; g > v; ð; ž; j; ɣ / V_, r_
mb; nd; nʒ; nǯ; ňǵ; ŋg > nasal is dropped / _r, _l
mb; nd; nʒ; nǯ; ňǵ; ŋg > m; n; n; ň; ň; ŋ / otherwise
mp; nt; nc; nč; ňḱ; ŋk > b; d; ʒ; ǯ; ǵ; g
mpʰ; ntʰ; ncʰ; nčʰ; ŋkʰ > nasal is dropped
p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > ṗ; ṭ; c̣; č̣; ḳ́; ḳ / #_
p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > b; d; ʒ; ǯ; ǵ; q / V_, r_, l_
  p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > pʰ; tʰ; cʰ; čʰ; ḱʰ; kʰ / s_, š_
h, x > x /χ ~ h/
r > ṙ /r/ / when initial or geminated
r > r /ɾ/ / otherwise
l > ł /ɫ/ / between vowels
ɣ > disappears / before sonorant
mn > m
mň > ň
geminate consonant > single consonant
Tr > Č (in some dialects, preserved or instead > Ḱ)
θr; ðr > š; ž
Kl, Tl > Ḱ
ľ > l
pre-tonic vowel loss whenever possible, otherwise generally > ə (but sometimes preserved)
  Forms consonant clusters that are resolved as follows:
  nasal + obstruent > nasal assimilates to place of articulation of obstruent
  obstruent clusters assimilate to voicing of final obstruent
  ṙ > r / in clusters
  N + r/ř/l/ł > stop homorganic to nasal is inserted (but ň + r > ndr; n/ň + l/ł > nd)
  N + ľ > ňǵ
  s + r/ř/l/ł > str/stř/stṙ/skl/skł
  š + r/ř/ṙ/l/ł > štr/štř/štṙ/škl/škł
  z/ž + r/ř/ṙ > epenthetic -d- inserted
  affricate + stop > affricate becomes corresponding appropriately voiced fricative
  initial ř + consonant > ř becomes post-alveolar fricative
  T + s/z > c/ʒ
  Č + s/z > č/ǯ
  etc
vowel harmony:
  unstressed vowels harmonize with stressed vowel in frontedness and sometimes roundedness (especially with high vowels)
    back (a; ə; ɨ, u) <-> front (e; e; i, y)
    unrounded (ɨ, i) <-> rounded (u, y)
  frontedness of stressed vowel may be affected by adjacent consonants (details TBD)
  stressed a sometimes > æ
l, ł > merge before obstruents - become ł before velar/post-velar, and l otherwise
r, ṙ, ř > merge before obstruents - become ř before dental, and r otherwise
r > ṙ / _n
r > ṙ / after consonants
ɨ, ə > merge to ə (trace of distinction remains in low vs mixed vowel harmony)
Transcription differences without significant sound change:
  ɣ > h /ɦ ~ ʁ/
  Cʰ > C


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Line 315: Line 786:
Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology
-->
-->
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
====Personal pronouns====
Line 320: Line 792:
|+ Celabrian personal pronouns
|+ Celabrian personal pronouns
|-
|-
! colspan="3" <!--rowspan="2"--> | Person and number <!--!! colspan="9" | Full !! colspan="5" | Clitic
! colspan="3" <!--rowspan="2"--> | Person and number <!--!! colspan="10" | Full !! colspan="5" | Clitic
|- -->
|- -->
! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental !! Adverbial !! Vocative
! Absolutive !! Emphatic<sup><small>1</small></sup> !! Ergative !! Dative !! Genitive <!--!! Possessive<sup><small>1</small></sup>--> !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental !! Adverbial !! Vocative !! Possessive suffix<sup><small>2</small></sup> !! Copulative suffix<sup><small>3</small></sup>
|-
! colspan="3" | 0<sup>th</sup>
| jæk || akak || jækiq || jækid || jækix || jæke || jækim || jækiv || jæken || jæko || -<u>a</u>k || -<u>a</u>k
|-
! rowspan="3" | 1<sup>st</sup> !! colspan="2" | Singular
| jam || akam || jaməq || jaməd || jaməx || jama || jaməm || jaməv || jaman || jamo || -<u>a</u>m || -<u>a</u>m
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1<sup>st</sup> !! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Dual
| am || || || || || || || ||
| ned || aknad || nediq || nedid || nedix || nede || nedim || nediv || neden || nedo || -n<u>a</u>d || -om
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Plural
! colspan="2" | Plural
| nø || || || || || || || ||
| vom || eḱňe || vomuq || vomud || vomux || voma || vomum || vomuv || voman || vomo || -n<u>a</u> || -om
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2<sup>nd</sup> !! rowspan="2" | Singular || Informal
! rowspan="4" | 2<sup>nd</sup> !! rowspan="2" | Singular || Informal
| ty || || || || || || || ||
| tjev || akət || tjeviq || tjevid || tjevix || tjeve || tjevim || tjeviv || tjeven || tjevo || -<u>ə</u>t || -<u>a</u>s
|-
|-
! Formal
! Formal
| || || || || || || || ||
| řan || akka || řanəq || řanəd || řanəx || řana || řanəm || řanəv || řanan || řano || -g̊<u>a</u> || -ot
|-
! colspan="2" | Dual
| gad || akkad || gadəq || gadəd || gadəx || gada || gadəm || gadəv || gadan || gado || -g̊<u>a</u>d || -ot
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Plural
! colspan="2" | Plural
| ǵy || || || || || || || ||
| vym || eḱḱe || vymyq || vymyd || vymyx || vyme || vymym || vymyv || vymen || vymo || -g̊<u>a</u> || -ot
|-
|-
<!--
! rowspan="5" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="2" | Singular !! Animate
! rowspan="8" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| řev || akəř || řeviq || řevid || řevix || řeve || řevim || řeviv || řeven || řevo || -<u>ə</u>ř || -<u>a</u>θ
| sa || hin || rowspan="3" | himm || rowspan="4" | his
|-
|-
! Neuter
! Inanimate
| hit || hit
| an || akən || (anəq) || anəd || anəx || ana || anəm || anəv || anan || ano || -<u>ə</u>n || -<u>a</u>n
|-
|-
! Unmarked
! Dual !! Animate
| þa || þa
| ṭyn || akəš || ṭynyq || ṭynyd || ṭynyx || ṭyne || ṭynym || ṭynyv || ṭynen || ṭyno || -<u>ə</u>š || -<u>a</u>t
|-
|-
! Feminine
! rowspan="2" | Plural !! Animate
| si || si || his
| tøt || eḱiš || tøtyq || tøtyd || tøtyx || tøte || tøtym || tøtyv || tøten || tøto || -<u>ə</u>š || -<u>a</u>t
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
! Inanimate
| þä || þans || rowspan="3" | þäm || rowspan="3" | þis
| peł || eḱin || (pełiq) || pełid || pełix || pełe || pełim || pełiv || pełen || peło || -<u>ə</u>n || -<u>a</u>n
|-
|-
! Neut./unm.
<!--
| þo || þo
! rowspan="2" | 4<sup>th</sup> !! colspan="2" | Singular
| əč || akəč || əčəq || əčəd || əčəx || əča || əčəm || əčəv || əčan || əčo || -<u>ə</u>č || -<u>a</u>č
|-
|-
! Feminine
! colspan="2" | Plural
| þos || þos
| eč || eḱič || ečiq || ečid || ečix || eče || ečim || ečiv || ečen || ečo || -<u>ə</u>č || -<u>a</u>č
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive
-->
| sei || sik || sis || sein-->
! colspan="3" | Reflexive
| xon || akəx || xonuq || xonud || xonux || xona || xonum || xonuv || xonan || xono || -<u>ə</u>x̊ || -<u>a</u>x̊
|-
|-
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Formed from the noun ''ak'' (pl. ''eḱ'') "self" with possessive suffixes.
<sup><small>2</small></sup> Possessive suffixes are stressed. The third person inanimate suffix ''-<u>ə</u>n'' is distinguished from the definite article by stress.
<sup><small>3</small></sup> Copulative suffixes are unstressed.


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Cases====
====Cases====
Case endings are unstressed.
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|-
! Case !! Usage !! Ending !! Notes
|-
! Absolutive
| Citation form; subject of intransitive verb; object of transitive verb; object of adposition|| – ||
|-
! Ergative
| Animate agent of transitive verb || -<u>ə</u>q ||
|-
! Dative
| Recipient, destination, motion towards (lative), purpose || -<u>ə</u>d ||
|-
! Genitive
| Possessor || -<u>ə</u>x || Can take additional case endings.
|-
! Ablative
| Origin, motion away, part of something (partitive) || -<u>a</u> || Can take additional case endings. Identical to partitive and plural/mass indefinite article.
|-
! Locative
| Location || -<u>ə</u>m ||
|-
! Instrumental
| Instrument, means; inanimate agent of transitive verb; cause/reason || -<u>ə</u>v ||
|-
! Adverbial
| Forms adverbs, "as" || -<u>a</u>n ||
|-
! Vocative
| Used for addressing someone/something || -o ||
|-
|}
====Number====
====Number====
Nouns can be singular or plural. Regular plurals are formed with the suffix ''-<u>a</u>n''. Many common nouns have irregular plural stems.
<!--
<!--
====Masculine animate====
====Masculine animate====
Line 435: Line 960:
|}
|}
-->
-->
====Definiteness====
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Celabrian noun classes
|-
! colspan="3" | Class
! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Dative !! Genitive !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental !! Comitative !! Adverbial
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1 !! colspan="2" | Singular
| vułk || vułk'''əq''' || vułk'''əd''' || vułk'''əš''' || vułk'''e''' || vułk'''a''' || vułk'''əm''' || vułk'''ək''' || vułk'''əs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Plural
| vyľḱ || vyľḱ'''əq''' || || || || || || || ||
|-
|}-->
There are three levels of definiteness in Celabrian:
*'''Definite:''' Something specific that is known to both the speaker and listener, that has been previously mentioned, or that is uniquely specified. Equivalent to English "the" in "I saw '''the''' car."
*'''Semidefinite:''' Something specific that is identifiable by the speaker but not the listener or that has not been previously mentioned. Equivalent to English "a" in "I saw '''a''' car."
*'''Indefinite:''' Refers non-specifically to a member of a class. Equivalent to English "a" in "I need '''a''' car."
Nouns unmarked for definiteness are semidefinite by default. The definite article is ''-<u>ə</u>n'' (added before case endings).
The indefinite article for singular, countable nouns is ''m<u>ə</u>-''. For plural and mass nouns, it is ''-<u>a</u>'' (equivalent to the ablative case ending and the partitive article).
Nouns with possessive suffixes do not take the definite article, but can take the indefinite article. Possessive suffixes come before case endings and the plural/uncountable indefinite suffix.
In addition to definite and indefinite articles, Celabrian has partitive and negative articles. The partitive article is ''-<u>a</u>'' (equivalent to the ablative case and the plural/mass indefinite article). It refers to a non-specific quantity of something. It is equivalent to English "some" in "I want '''some''' coffee."
The negative article is ''k<u>a</u>-''. It specifies none of something, and is equivalent to English "no" in "I see '''no''' car."
All articles are unstressed. The articles are summarized in the table below:
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Article !! rowspan="2" | Usage !! colspan="4" | Ending
|-
! possessed !! singular countable !! plural countable !! uncountable
|-
! Definite
| Something specific that is known to both speaker and listener, that has been previously mentioned, or that is uniquely specified. || rowspan="2" | – || colspan="3" | -<u>ə</u>n
|-
! Semidefinite
| Something specific that is identifiable by the speaker but not the listener, or that has not been previously mentioned. || colspan="3" | –
|-
! Indefinite
| A non-specific member of a class. || (same as unpossessed noun) || m<u>ə</u>- || colspan="2" | -<u>a</u>
|-
! Partitive
| A non-specific quantity of something. || colspan="4" | -<u>a</u>
|-
! Negative
| None of something. || colspan="4" | k<u>a</u>-
|-
|}
====Demonstratives====
The far demonstrative is identical to the definite article. To specify the distance, a place adverb can be added.
Proximity is indicated with the suffix ''-s'', which is added before case endings. When added to a word ending in the definite article, the ''-n'' is dropped.
====Interrogatives====
The interrogative is formed from nouns by suffixing ''-ǵ'' after any demonstrative endings and before case endings.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are declined the same as nouns, agreeing with them in case and number. An adjective can also be used independently.
====Nisba adjectives====
Nisba adjectives are formed with the suffix ''-i''<!--related to Armenian -i from PIE-->.
===Numbers===
{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
!0
| səfṙ, næk || səfṙətə, nækte
|-
!1
| řon || pavṙə
|-
!2
| ǵøq || ṭyte
|-
!3
| či || čite
|-
!4
| štyr || štyrte
|-
!5
| peč || pečte
|-
!6
| x́aš || x́aštə
|-
!7
| šta || štatə
|-
!8
| te || tete
|-
!9
| ne || nete
|-
!10
| ṭjas || ṭjaste
|-
!11
| šæn || šæntə
|-
!12
| tjud || tjude
|-
!13
| ṭjasči || ṭjasčite
|-
!14
| ṭjasštyr || ṭjasštyrte
|-
! 20
| ksət || ksətə
|-
! 21
| ksətřon || ksətřontə
|-
!30
| ksətṭjas || ksətṭjastə
|-
!31
| ksətšæn || ksətšænte
|-
|}
| <!--column break-->
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
!32
| ksəttjud || ksəttjudə
|-
!40
| ṭyksət || ṭyksətə
|-
!50
| ṭyksətṭjas || ṭyksətṭjastə
|-
!60
| pečud || pečude
|-
!70
| pečudṭjas || pečudṭjastə
|-
!80
| štyrksət || štyrksətə
|-
!90
| štyrksətṭjas || štyrksətṭjastə
|-
!100
| ḳ́id (pečksət) || ḳ́ide (pečksətə)
|-
!101
| ḳ́idřon (pečksətřon) || ḳ́idřontə (pečksətřontə)
|-
!110
| ḳ́idṭjas (pečksətṭjas) || ḳ́idṭjastə (pečksətṭjastə)
|-
!120
| seč || sečte
|-
!130
| sečṭjas || sečṭjastə
|-
!140
| sečksət || sečksətə
|-
!200
| ṭyḳ́id || ṭyḳ́ide
|-
!300
| čiḳ́id || čiḳ́ide
|-
!1,000
| zil || zilte
|-
!2,000
| ṭyzil || ṭyzilte
|-
!10^4
| myřð || myřðe
|-
!10^6
| ḳ́idmyřð || ḳ́idmyřðe
|}
|}
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
<!--
====Stems====
Celabrian verbs have two stems: the perfective and imperfective stems.
====TAM====
-->
====Structure====
Verbs are made of the following components: '''Preverbal particle-Indirect object prefix-Agent prefix-[TAM prefix-(Derivation prefix-Stem-Derivation suffix)-TAM suffix]-Personal suffix'''
Not all components have to present in a given verb form. The portion within round brackets is known as the derived stem, and the portion within square brackets is known as the tense stem.
====Preverbal particles====
====Personal affixes====
There are three kinds of personal affixes, each with its designated position in the verb form. They are (in order of appearance):
#'''Indirect object prefixes''': represent verbal arguments in the dative, ablative, locative, and/or instrumental cases.
#'''Agent prefixes''': represent verbal argument in the ergative case.
#'''Personal suffixes''': represent verbal argument in the absolutive case. They are equivalent to the corresponding copulative suffix.<!--There are two types of personal suffixes, depending on the tense and mood:
##'''Primary personal suffixes:''' equivalent to corresponding possessive suffixes.
##'''Secondary personal suffixes:''' equivalent to corresponding copulative suffixes.-->
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Person and Number !! colspan="2" | Prefix !! <!--col-->rowspan="2" | Suffix
|-
! Indirect object !! Agent <!--!! Primary !! Secondary-->
|-
! colspan="2" | 0
| <u>a</u>k<u>ə</u>- || k<u>ə</u>- ||<!-- -<u>ə</u>k ||--> -<u>a</u>k
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1 !! S
| <u>a</u>m<u>ə</u>- || m<u>ə</u>- ||<!-- -<u>a</u>m ||--> -<u>a</u>m
|-
! D + P
| <u>a</u>n<u>a</u>- || n<u>a</u>- ||<!-- -n<u>a</u> ||--> -om
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2 !! SI
| <u>a</u>t<u>ə</u>- || t<u>ə</u>- ||<!-- -<u>ə</u>t ||--> -<u>a</u>s
|-
! SF + D + P
| <u>a</u>g̊<u>a</u>- || g̊<u>a</u>- ||<!-- -g̊<u>a</u> ||--> -ot
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3 !! SA
| <u>a</u>ř<u>ə</u>- || ř<u>ə</u>- ||<!-- -<u>ə</u>ř ||--> -<u>a</u>θ
|-
! SI + PI
| <u>a</u>n<u>ə</u>- || – ||<!-- -<u>ə</u>n ||--> -<u>a</u>n
|-
<!--
! 4S
| <u>a</u>č<u>ə</u>- || č<u>ə</u>- || -<u>a</u>č
|-
-->
! DA + PA
| <u>a</u>t<u>a</u>- || t<u>a</u>- ||<!-- -<u>ə</u>š ||--> -<u>a</u>t
|-
! colspan="2" | R
| <u>a</u>x̊<u>a</u>- || x̊<u>a</u>- || –
|-
|}
====Stems====
A Celabrian verb has three stems, known as the perfective, imperfective, and oblique stems. Regular verbs form the perfective and imperfective stems from the oblique via the suffixes ''-<u>a</u>n-'' and ''-<u>a</u>s-'' respectively. Irregular verbs have unpredictable stems.
Derived stems are formed by adding derivational affixes to the primary stem. Derived verbs include causatives, antipassives, and applicatives. Tense stems are formed by adding affixes to the main stem, whether primary or derived.
====Tense, mood, aspect====
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size: 90%"
|+ Celabrian tenses, moods, and aspects<sup><small>1</small></sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" | Tense !! rowspan="2" | Mood !! colspan="2" | Usage !! rowspan="2" style="width:80px;" | Stem !! rowspan="2" style="width:400px;" | Notes
|-
! Present frame !! Non-present frame
|-
! rowspan="2" | Aorist !! Indicative
| Simple action in past. || Simple action in frame of reference. || ''<!--b-->P<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" | The aorist is considered the default tense. It expresses a simple action without reference to timeframe or completion.
|-
! Subjunctive
| colspan="2" | Simple action in frame of reference. || ''P''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Perfect !! Indicative
| An action in the past that has present relevance. || An action before frame of reference that is still relevant. || ṭ<u>a</u>-''<!--b-->P<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" | The perfect prefix ''ṭ<u>a</u>-'' can be added to other tenses to convert them into perfects.
|-
! Subjunctive
| colspan="2" | An action before frame of reference that is still relevant. || ṭ<u>a</u>-''P''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
<!--
! rowspan="2" | Progressive !! Indicative
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | An ongoing action in frame of reference. || ''I''-(<u>ə</u>)t-''2'' || rowspan="2" |
|-
! Subjunctive
| ''I''-(<u>ə</u>)t-aš-''1''
|-
-->
! rowspan="2" | Imperfect !! Indicative
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | An ongoing action in frame of reference. || ''<!--b-->I<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" |
|-
! Subjunctive
| ''I''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Habitual !! Indicative
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | A habitual/repeated action in frame of reference. || ''O''-<u>ə</u>m-<!--b--><!--''2''--><!--/b--> || rowspan="2" |
|-
! Subjunctive
| ''O''-<u>ə</u>m-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Gnomic !! Indicative
| rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Expresses general truths. || ''O''-<u>ə</u>ł-<!--b--><!--''2''--><!--/b--> || rowspan="2" |
|-
! Subjunctive
| ''O''-<u>ə</u>ł-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Past !! Indicative
| An action in the past. || An action that took place before frame of reference. || p<u>a</u>-''<!--b-->P<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" | The past prefix ''p<u>a</u>-'' can be added to other tenses to place them in a past frame of reference.
|-
! Subjunctive
| colspan="2" | An action that took place before frame of reference. || p<u>a</u>-''P''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Future !! Indicative
| An action in the future. || An action that will take place after frame of reference. || ho-''<!--b-->P<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" | The future prefix ''ho-'' can be added to other tenses to place them in a future frame of reference.
|-
! Subjunctive
| colspan="2" | An action that will take place after frame of reference. || ho-''P''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! rowspan="2" | Present !! Indicative
| An action in the present. || An action taking place during frame of reference. || n<u>ə</u>-''<!--b-->P<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || rowspan="2" | The present prefix ''n<u>ə</u>-'' can be added to other tenses to place them in a present frame of reference.
|-
! Subjunctive
| colspan="2" | An action that is taking place during the frame of reference. || n<u>ə</u>-''P''-<!--b-->aš<!--/b-->-<!--''1''-->
|-
! colspan="2" | Imperative
| Forms a command or request in the second person. || – || SI: ''<!--b-->O<!--/b-->'' <br />SF/P:''<!--b-->O<!--/b-->''-(ə)t  || rowspan="2" | The imperative is only used for the second person, and only when it is the absolutive argument of the verb. Otherwise, the jussive is used. The jussive can also be used as a more gentle/polite affirmative second person command.
|-
! colspan="2" | Jussive
| Forms a command or request, or expresses an obligation. || Expresses an obligation in the frame of reference. || ''<!--b-->O<!--/b-->-<!--1-->''
|-
! colspan="2" | Optative
| Expresses a wish, or encourages an action. || Expresses a wish in the frame of reference. || ''O''-<!--'''-->aš<!--'''-->-<!--''1''--> || Can be translated as "should/must" when the subject has control over the action, and "may" when the subject does not. Can also be used as a more gentle alternative to the jussive or imperative.
|-
! colspan="2" | Conditional
| colspan="2" | Expresses a hypothetical event/state that is dependent on some condition. || ṭ<u>a</u>-''<!--b-->O<!--/b-->-<!--1-->'' || Can be translated as "would (have)".
|-
! colspan="2" | Presumptive
| colspan="2" | Expresses a hypothetical event/state that is presupposed to be true. || ṭa-''O''-<!--'''-->aš<!--'''-->-<!--''1''--> || The presumptive is often paired with the conditional.
|-
|}
<!--'''-->Notes:<!--'''-->
<sup><small>1</small></sup> ''P'' = perfective stem; ''I'' = imperfective stem; ''O'' = oblique stem; <!--''1'' = primary personal endings; ''2'' = secondary personal endings; (<u>ə</u>) = added when needed for pronunciation. -->Stress is always on last syllable before personal ending.
<!--
*'''Aorist''' (''<b>P</b>-1'')
**'''Indicative:''' Expresses a simple action in the past. Can also express a non-past action in the appropriate context, such as when used in conjunction with a future adverb.
**'''Subjunctive:''' Expresses a simple action in the appropriate time-frame (as provided by context) without reference to completion.
*'''Perfect:''' (ṭ<u>a</u>-''<b>P</b>-1'')
**'''Indicative:''' Expresses an action that took place in the past that has present relevance. In a non-present frame of reference, indicates a relative past.
**'''Subjunctive:''' Expresses an action that took place before the frame of reference (i.e. a relative past).
*'''Habitual:''' (''P''-(<u>ə</u>)m-''<b>2</b>'' – <u>ə</u> is added when needed for pronunciation)
**Expresses a repeated action.
*'''Progressive:''' (''I''-(<u>ə</u>)t-''<b>2</b>'')
**Expresses an ongoing action in the present (or in the frame of reference).
*'''Imperfect:''' (''<b>I</b>-1'')
**Expresses an ongoing action in the past (or before the frame of reference).
*'''Optative:''' (''<b>O</b>-1'')
**'''Indicative:''' Expresses a wish/desire/intention. Also used as a jussive/cohortative, and as an affirmative imperative for ergative agents and (in the negative) as a negative imperative for all subjects.
**'''Subjunctive:''' Functions as a softer jussive/cohortative/imperative.
*'''Imperative:''' (singular: '''''O'''''; plural: '''''O'''''-(<u>ə</u>)t)
**For direct commands. Always affirmative; use optative for negative.
All Subjunctives are formed by from the corresponding Indicatives by removing personal suffixes then adding the stressed suffix -<u>'''a'''</u>š-''1'' to the tense stem.
-->
====Voice====
{|class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|-
! Voice !! Usage !! Derived <br />stem !! Notes
|-
! Active
| Default form of a verb. || – ||
|-
! Applicative
| Promotes an indirect object to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. || <u>e</u>t- ||
|-
! Antipassive
| Promotes ergative agent to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. The cause (if present) takes the instrumental case. || -<u>a</u>r ||  Unlike the causative, if a cause is mentioned, it is not purposely causing the event.
|-
! Causative
| Promotes ergative agent to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. Causer takes ergative case. || -dor || Somewhat similar to antipassive, but it is implied that the causer is purposely causing the event.
|-
|}
====Denominal verbs====
<!--
Verbs are productively formed from nouns by preceding the noun with the verb ''šeram'' (imperfective stem: ''garʒ-'', oblique stem: ''aṙ'') "to do, make", with ''-(ə)-'' inserted if needed. For example, ''məgarʒan kar'' (literally, "I-do-it work") means "I work". The noun occupies the place of the absolutive object. Any objects are in the dative case. For example, -->


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
The most common word order is AXTV, where V = verb, T = theme (absolutive argument: object of transitive, subject of intransitive), A = agent (ergative argument), X = other arguments.
However, other words orders are allowed and common. In particular, words may be placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, especially if followed by the emphatic particle ''ǯe''.
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Modifiers may precede or follow the noun they modify.
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
The verb most often occurs at the end of the phrase<!--, especially in subordinate clauses-->.
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''koxan''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''x́øren''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| spring || gəṙ <!--wésr-->
|-
| summer || mæ <!--smh2ṓr-->
|-
| fall || aṙ <!--h1ósr-->
|-
| winter || zmor <!--ģhimḗr-->
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''milædijen mišen''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| January || ǵňoř <!--CC g'anvṓř-->
|-
| February || pṙoř <!--CC phørvṓř-->
|-
| March || mařʒ <!--CC márc-->
|-
| April || bṙił <!--CC aprī́l-->
|-
| May || maj <!--CC majj-->
|-
| June || ḳ́aršoř <!-- CC kerašjṓř< cerasiārius -->
|-
| July || ǵyl <!-- CC ģýľ-->
|-
| August || hušt<!-- CC agúšth-->
|-
| September || štabṙ <!-- Earlier štebr (modified influence šta) CC řjathémbr-->
|-
| October || tebṙ <!--CC athémbr-->
|-
| November || nebṙ <!--CC anémbr-->
|-
| December || ṭjasabṙ <!--CC tjasémbr-->
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| Sunday || řonžvata <!--ḳ́yrǵe--> <!--CC kyřakē'-->
|-
| Monday || ṭyžvata <!--dere--> <!--CC dø-téra-->
|-
| Tuesday || čižvata <!--č̣id--> <!--CC tríti-->
|-
| Wednesday || štyržvata<!-- deřd --><!--CC tetárti-->
|-
| Thursday || pečžvata <!--ṗet --><!--CC pénti-->
|-
| Friday || ǯumhə <!--CC parashkhø-' --->
|-
| Saturday || šəmad <!-- CC šámbat-->
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - '' ''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| day || løm
|-
| dawn || røre
|-
| morning || fšiš
|-
| noon || mježløm <!-- medhyos...-->
|-
| afternoon || gəfṙ <!-- weksperos-->
|-
| evening || šep <!-- kwseps-->
|-
| dusk || vøṙ
|-
| night || natə <!--nokwtā-->
|-
| midnight || mježnatə <!-- medhyos...-->
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - '' ''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| second || θæniye
|-
| minute || mot <!--meh1tis-->
|-
| hour || koxə
|-
| day || løm
|-
| week || řat <!--CC řjat (or šabát Armenian-->
|-
| month || miš
|-
| season || x́øre
|-
| year || ǵat <!--wétos-->
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - '' ''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| now || ni <!--nū-->
|-
| then ||
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier ||
|-
| soon, shortly ||
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || jeje
|-
| often ||
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || veve
|-
| ever ||
|-
| still, yet ||
|-
| already ||
|-
| today || lømys<!-->
|-
| tonight || natas<!-->
|-
| yesterday || ze<!--dhģhyes-->
|-
| last night || zenatə<!-->
|-
| tomorrow || mon <!--L māne-->
|-
| tomorrow night || monnatə
|-
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
| this year || ǵatəs<!-->
|-
| last year || pjerit<!--from peruti-->
|-
| next year ||
|}
===Colours - ''ṙəŋanən''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''ṙəŋanən''
! English !! Celabrian
|-
| white || barǯə
|-
| grey || kani
|-
| black ||
|-
| red || ḱermił
|-
| orange || narənǯi
|-
| brown || qaxvi
|-
| yellow || blør <!--*bʰloh₁-ro--->
|-
| green || zjeł <!--ǵʰelh-->
|-
| blue ||
|-
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden || zlati <!--*ǵʰl̥h₃-tó-s + -i-->
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->

Latest revision as of 07:03, 12 March 2023

Celabrian (Celabrian: gərṭeʒ [ɡəɾˈtʼed͡z]) is an Indo-European language.

Celabrian
gərṭeʒ
Pronunciation[ɡəɾˈtʼed͡z]
Created byShariifka
Indo-European
  • Celabrian
Early forms
Proto-Celabrian
  • Old Celabrian
    • Classical Celabrian

Introduction

Etymology

The name Celabrian comes from the tribal name Celabri (Greek: Κελαβροί) < Proto-Celabrian *kelabʰras "warrior" (compare Modern Celabrian č̣łavṙ [t͡ʃʼɫavr]) < *kelas "spear" (< PIE *gʷelH- "to throw, pierce"; compare Modern Celabrian č̣ał [t͡ʃʼaɫ] "weapon") + *-bʰras "bearer" (thematization of earlier *-bʰēr < PIE *bʰer- "to bear, carry").

The endonym gərṭeʒ comes from gər "Celabrian" (< PC *wīras "man" < PIE *wiHrós "man, warrior") + ṭeʒ "language" (< PC *tancūs "tongue" < PIE *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s). The formal language is known as bonṭeʒ [bonˈtʼed͡z], from bon "clear, eloquent" (< PC *bʰānas < PIE *bʰeh₂- "to shine; to speak"). The classical language is known as akṙəṭeʒ [ˌakʰrəˈtʼed͡z] (Classical Celabrian: akʰra tanci [ˈakʰɾa ˈtant͡si]), from akṙ "precise, sharp" (< PC *akʰras "sharp" < PIE *h₂ḱrós). The colloquial language is known as łøðṭeʒ [ɫ̪œtʼˈtʼed͡z], from łøð "masses, common folk" (< PC *aleudʰis < PIE *h₁léwdʰis "people").

Phonology

Orthography

The Celabrian alphabet

Celabrian is written with the Celabrian alphabet, which is ultimately derived from the Phoenician alphabet via Ancient Greek. In this article, a Romanization is used for convenience.

The majority of the letters are inherited from Ancient Greek. Some are internal developments, from variants or ligatures of other letters, and some are later borrowings from Greek. A few letters have an unknown or uncertain origin.

The names of the letters are Celabrian innovations.

Celabrian alphabet

Celabrian alphabet
Letter Romanization IPA Name Origin Remarks
Romanization IPA Meaning Script Letter
a /ɑ/ až /ɑʒ/ snake Greek Α Inherited.
b /b/ boz /boz/ arm Greek Β Inherited.
h /ɦ ~ ʁ/ haθ /ɦɑθ/ stranger, foreigner Greek Γ Inherited.
d /d/ dur /duɾ/ door Greek Δ Inherited.
e /e/ ječ /jet͡ʃʰ/ belly, guts, inside Greek Ε Inherited.
g /ɡ/ got /ɡotʰ/ axe Greek F Inherited.
z /z/ zan /zɑn/ goose Greek Ζ Inherited.
æ /æ/ jæʒ /jæd͡z/ goat Greek Η Inherited.
t /tʰ/ tøk /tʰøkʰ/ sprout, seedling Greek Θ Inherited.
ǵ /ɟ/ ǵuq /ɟuʔ/ yoke Greek Ι From an early variant of jič.
i /i/ jič /jit͡ʃʰ/ road, path Greek Ι Inherited.
ḳ /kʼ/ ḳṙiv /kʼriv/ carving Greek Κ Inherited.
ł /ɫ/ łæš /ɫæʃ/ (< læše "plough") Greek Λ Inherited.
c /t͡sʰ/ cək /t͡sʰəkʰ/ peg, hook Greek Ψ From an early variant of sap.
m /m/ myš /myʃ/ mouse Greek Μ Inherited.
n /n/ niθ /niθ/ seat, chair; sitting, meeting; situation Greek Ν Inherited.
č /t͡ʃʰ/ čar /t͡ʃʰɑɾ/ dry Greek Ξ Inherited.
u /u/ vun /vun/ water Greek Ο Inherited.
ṗ /pʼ/ ṗak /pʼɑkʰ/ club Greek Π Inherited.
c̣ /t͡sʼ/ c̣əm /t͡sʼəm/ molar Greek Ϻ (san) Inherited.
ḳ́ /cʼ/ ḳ́ø /cʼø/ cattle Greek Ϙ Inherited.
r /ɾ/ rot /ɾotʰ/ (< ṙot "cane") Greek Ρ Inherited.
ǯ /d͡ʒ/ ǯarm /d͡ʒɑɾm/ warm ? ? Origin unknown.
š /ʃ/ šaš /ʃɑʃ/ (< šašə "comb") Greek Σ Inherited.
ṭ /tʼ/ ṭaš /tʼɑʃ/ tear Greek Τ Inherited.
ň /ɲ/ ňam /ɲɑm/ shoot ? ? Origin unknown.
v /v/ vuš /vuʃ/ ox Greek Υ Inherited.
p /pʰ/ pit /pʰitʰ/ feather Greek Φ Inherited.
č̣ /t͡ʃʼ/ č̣alč /t͡ʃʼɑltʃʰ/ crossbow ? ? Origin unknown.
k /kʰ/ kap /kʰɑpʰ/ head Greek Χ Inherited.
ř /ɹ/ řeł /ɹeɫ/ gerboa Greek? Ϻ? Origin uncertain. Probably from Greek Ϻ (san).
s /s/ sap /sɑpʰ/ hoof Greek Ψ Inherited.
o /o/ vobl /vobl/ apple Greek Ω Inherited.
j /j/ jeł /jeɫ/ deer Greek Ι Originally a variant of jič.
ó /o/ vóḱ /voc/ eye Greek Ο A later borrowing.
l /l/ løv /løv/ child ? ? Origin unknown.
x́ /ç/ x́æł /çæɫ/ heat of the sun ? ? Origin uncertain.
ə /ə/ ət /ətʰ/ face Armenian Ը Borrowed from Armenian.
θ /θ/ θæh /θæʁ/ path Greek Θ A later borrowing.
f /f/ far /fɑɾ/ sparrow Greek Φ A later borrowing.
x /h ~ χ/ xał /hɑɫ ~ χɑɫ/ large fish, whale Greek Χ A later borrowing.
y /y/ vyrḱ /vyɾcʰ/ jar Greek Υ A later borrowing.
ø /ø/ vøš /vøʃ/ ear Greek ΟΙ Originally a ligature of vun + jič.
ŋ /ŋ/ ŋaš /ŋɑʃ/ silence Greek ΓΓ Originally a ligature of haθ + haθ.
ž /ʒ/ žam /ʒɑm/ hour ? ? Originally a variant of ǯar.
q /ʔ ~ q/ qłuθ /qɫuθ/ servant Greek Κ Originally a variant of ḳṙiv.
ḱ /cʰ/ ḱøt /cʰøtʰ/ fight Greek Χ Originally a variant of kap.
ʒ /d͡z/ ʒoč /d͡zot͡ʃʰ/ (< ʒočə "whip") Greek Ζ Originally a variant of zan.
ð /ð/ ðiš /ðiʃ/ axe, adze Greek Δ Originally a variant of dur.
ṙ /r/ ṙuž /ruʒ/ rye Latin? R? Mostly likely borrowed from Latin R. Alternatively, may be from a variant of rot.

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Celabrian
Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal1 Velar2 Uvular3 Glottal3
Nasal m /m/ n /n/ ň /ɲ/ ŋ /ŋ/
Plosive voiceless p /pʰ/ t /tʰ/ ḱ /cʰ/ k /kʰ/ q /q ~ ʔ/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ ǵ /ɟ/ g /ɡ/
ejective ṗ /pʼ/ ṭ /tʼ/ ḳ́ /cʼ/ ḳ /kʼ/
Affricate voiceless c /t͡sʰ/ č /t͡ʃʰ/
voiced ʒ /d͡z/ ǯ /d͡ʒ/
ejective c̣ /t͡sʼ/ č̣ /t͡ʃʼ/
Fricative voiceless f /f/ θ /θ/ s /s/ š /ʃ/ x́ /ç/ x /χ ~ h/
voiced v /v/ ð /ð/ z /z/ ž /ʒ/ j /ʝ ~ j/6 h /ɦ ~ ʁ/
Approximant central ř /ɹ/
lateral ł /ɫ/4 l /l/5
Trill ṙ /r/7
Flap r /ɾ/

Notes:

1 Depending on dialect, the palatal obstruents ḱ, ǵ, ḳ́, x́, j /cʰ, ɟ, cʼ, ç, ʝ/ may be fronted to [t͡ɕʰ, d͡ʑ, t͡ɕʼ, ɕ, ʑ] or even [t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ, t͡ʃʼ, ʃ, ʒ] (merging with the corresponding postalveolars).

2 The velar consonants are truly velar when adjacent to front vowels and postvelar otherwise.

3 The guttural consonants q, x, and h can be pronounced uvular or glottal depending on environment. The allophones are summarized in the table below. When two pronunciations are given, both are allowed but the first is more common.

Phoneme In roots In affixes
Adjacent to consonant
in same morpheme		 Otherwise Adjacent to non-root consonant Otherwise
initial medial final
q q ʔ ~ q q ʔ
x χ χ ~ h h ~ χ χ h
h ʁ ɦ ɦ ~ ʁ ʁ ʁ ɦ

Note that in some dialects q is not guttural and is instead merged with g.

4 Alveolar [ɫ] before consonants, dental [ɫ̪] otherwise. Unless preceded by a consonant, the dental allophone may instead be pronounced [ð(ˠ)] or [ɮ̪(ˠ)] depending on dialect.

5 May be palatalized when adjacent to front vowels.

6 Pronounced [ʝ] syllable-initially. Otherwise, pronounced [j]. In non-careful or hypercorrect speech (particularly for speakers of dialects that front palatals), may be pronounced [j] in all environments.

7 Pronounced non-distinctively as [r ~ ɾ] after consonants. Otherwise, ṙ /r/ and r /ɾ/ are distinct.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Standard Celabrian
Front Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
Close i /i/ y /y/ ə /ə/ u /u/
Mid e /e/ ø /ø/ o, ó /o/1
Open æ /æ/ a /ɑ/

Notes:

1 The vowels o and ó are pronounced identically in Standard Celabrian. The different graphemes represent an etymological distinction: o comes Classical Celabrian long ō, while ó corresponds to Classical Celabrian short o (which was only present in loanwords). Some dialects distinguish these phonemes, pronouncing o as /ɔ/ and ó as /o/.

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Vowel harmony

Celabrian has three vowel harmony systems: high, low, and mixed. These are shown in the table below:

Standard Celabrian vowel harmony systems
Harmony system Front Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
High i y ə u
Low e a
Mixed e ə

In this article, the following notation is used to represent vowel harmony in affixes:

  • ə: high harmonizing vowel (ə/u/i/y)
    • Represents back allomorphs (ə/u) when contrasted with i (= i/y), and unrounded allomorphs (ə/i) when contrasted with u (= u/y).
  • a: low harmonizing vowel (a/e)
  • e: mixed harmonizing vowel (ə/e)

Harmonizing affixes harmonize with the nearest vowel in the word they are attached to. Vowels within a word do not have to agree in frontness/backness, but they usually do except in compound words.

The mid rounded vowels o, ó, and ø are not affected by vowel harmony.

Palatalization

Velar and guttural consonants in harmonizing affixes are often palatalized when the harmonizing vowel is fronted. In this article, this is indicated with a ring above the consonant:

  • k̊: k ~ ḱ
  • g̊: g ~ ǵ
  • ḳ̊: ḳ ~ ḳ́
  • x̊: x ~ x́
  • h̊: h ~ j
  • q̊: q ~ ǵ
  • ŋ̊: ŋ ~ ň

Voice assimilation

When a prefix beginning in an obstruent attaches to a word ending in an obstruent, the initial consonant of the prefix assimilates to the final consonant of the root in voicing. If their places of articulation are close enough, there may be complete assimilation. Similarly, a final obstruent in a prefix assimilates to a following obstruent. A similar process takes place with the first component of compound words, but this is not indicated in writing.

Palatal assimilation

This occurs when a prefix beginning in n or ł follows a word ending in a palatal consonant. In this circumstance:

  • n > ň
  • ł > l

Hiatus resolution

When vowels meet at morpheme boundaries, the following changes take place:

  • ə + ə > a
  • any other identical vowels merge into one of the same vowel
  • a + æ, æ + a > æ
  • æ + e, e + æ > e
  • ə > disappears / before or after any vowel except ə
  • close vowel > disappears / adjacent to homorganic mid vowel
  • v is inserted between rounded vowel (o, ø, ó, u, y) and any adjacent vowel
  • e; i > je; ji / after any non-rounded vowel
  • a > ja / after unrounded front vowel

Vowel epenthesis

When an illegal consonant cluster would occur at a morpheme boundary, an epenthetic high vowel is inserted. This vowel harmonizes with the preceding vowel, or the following vowel if there is no preceding vowel.

Historical phonology

PIE to Early Proto-Celabrian (PC)

*h1e > e
*a, *h2e > a
*(H)o, *h3e > a 
*ē, *eh1 > ē
*eh2 > ā
*ō, *oH, *eh3 > ō
*iH > ī
*uH > ū
stress shifts (often to penultimate syllable/mora)
*w, *y > Ø / in long diphthongs
*CHC > CaC
*HC- > aC- / #_
*r̥H > ra
*l̥H > la
*n̥H > na
*m̥H > ma
*r̥ > ri, ar
*l̥ > li, al
*m̥ > am
*n̥ > an
-m > -n / _#, _C (assimilates to place of articulation of following consonant)
labiovelar > plain velar
palatovelar > plain velar / _r, _l, _n, _s
*p; *t; *ḱ; *k > pʰ; tʰ; cʰ /t͡sʰ/; kʰ
*b; *d; *ǵ; *g > p; t; c /t͡s/; k
*ǵʰ > *ʒʰ /d͡zʱ/ (other voiced aspirates preserved)
sbʰ; sdʰ; sʒʰ; sgʰ > spʰ; stʰ; scʰ; skʰ
*s > š / r_, u_, K_, i_ (ruki sound law)

Transcription differences without significant sound change:
*y > j
*Vy > Vi
*Vu > Vu

Early PC to Late PC

ē > ī / _ns
ē > ā
 In some dialects, this takes place after the palatalization of velars, affecting some words that were reborrowed into the standard dialect.
ei, eje > ī
e > i / with i in following syllable
s > š / i_, ī_ (ruki is still productive at this point)
s, š > Ø / _n, _m (lengthen preceding vowel, even if intervening consonant is present)
s > Ø / #_r, #_l
sr, šr > rr / non-initial
sl, šl > ll / non-initial
velar stop (k, kʰ, gʰ) > palatal stop (ḱ, ḱʰ, ǵʰ) / before front vowels or j - at this stage, palatalization is allophonic

Late PC to Old Celabrian

ḱ; ḱʰ; ǵʰ > č /t͡ʃ/; čʰ /t͡ʃʰ/; ǯ /d͡ʒʱ/
stop consonant + t(ʰ) > ttʰ
ns > s / when non-final (lengthens preceding vowel)
s > š / ī_
-s, -š, -t > disappear / _#
-r > disappear / ō_#
s- > ž / #_
-s- > h / V_V
sT; sP; sC; sČ; sK > htʰ /θ͡t̪͡θ/; hpʰ /φ͡p͡φ/; hcʰ /s͡t͡s/; hčʰ /ʃ͡t͡ʃ/; hkʰ /x͡k͡x/
Kš > ččʰ
Ps, Ts, ss > ccʰ
sw > xv
w > gʷ / #_, after sonorant
Pj > *Pš > ččʰ (where P represents any labial stop)
Tj > ČČ
Cj > CC
Čj > ČČ
nj; lj; rj; sj > ň; ľ; ř; š / #_, C_
nj; lj; rj; sj > ňň; ľľ; řř; šš / V_V, V_#
mj > mň
Kn > ň-, -ňň-
Tn > nn
Pn > mn
j > ǵ / #_
bʰ; dʰ; ʒʰ; ǯʰ > b; d; ʒ; ǯ
gʰ > g / adjacent to nasal
gʰ > ɣ / otherwise
e > ja / before a; in non-final closed syllables
e > je / except when final, in diphthong, or immediately followed by nasal
*Note: The above two changes do not affect "e" in loanwords, probably because they differed in quality. After these changes occurred, the borrowed "e" merged with its native equivalent.
ō > vø̄-, -ø̄-
ū > vȳ, -ȳ-
ai > jē-, -ē-
eu > jø̄, -ø̄-
au > vø̄, -ø̄-
o (from loanwords) > vo / #_
e > je / #_
ē > jē / #_
ā > vā / #_

Transcription differences without significant sound change:
 w > v

Old Celabrian to Classical Celabrian

htʰ; hpʰ; hcʰ; hčʰ; hkʰ > θ; f; s; š; x
cʰ; ʒ; čʰ > s; z; š / except after n, l
ž, ř > ř /ɹ/
ā > ō / except in final syllable
nasal + liquid > stop homorganic to nasal is inserted between them
NC > C / #_
Unstressed final syllable vowels (does not affect monosyllabic words):
 short vowel > ə / when not followed by consonant, if dropping would lead to forbidden consonant cluster
 short vowel > disappears / when not followed by consonant, otherwise
 ā > a
 ī, ē, ø̄, ȳ > i
Stressed final syllable vowels (including in monosyllabic words):
 ȳ; ø̄ > ī; ē

Classical Celabrian to Standard Modern Celabrian

v > ʷ / C_
a > ə / before nasal in closed syllable
-ə > disappears / word-finally
final unstressed -a > -ə
ē > æ / _C
long vowel > short
e; i; ø; y > a; ɨ; o; u / Cʷ_ (but not v_)
a; ə; e; o; ɨ; u > e; e; i; ø; i; y / when followed by i in following syllable
ji > i / C_
gʷ > g
velar > palatal / before front vowel or j
Cʷ > uC / after stressed, open vowel
Cʷ > C / otherwise
iu > ju / _C
nj; (l)lj; (r)rj > ň; ľ; ř
j > disappears / after palatal or post-alveolar consonant
v > disappears / after rounded vowel in unstressed syllables
ou > o / _C
u > f/v / V_C (agrees with following consonant in voicing)
final unstressed -i > disappears
b; d; ǯ; ǵ; g > v; ð; ž; j; ɣ / V_, r_
mb; nd; nʒ; nǯ; ňǵ; ŋg > nasal is dropped / _r, _l
mb; nd; nʒ; nǯ; ňǵ; ŋg > m; n; n; ň; ň; ŋ / otherwise
mp; nt; nc; nč; ňḱ; ŋk > b; d; ʒ; ǯ; ǵ; g
mpʰ; ntʰ; ncʰ; nčʰ; ŋkʰ > nasal is dropped
p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > ṗ; ṭ; c̣; č̣; ḳ́; ḳ / #_
p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > b; d; ʒ; ǯ; ǵ; q / V_, r_, l_
 p; t; c; č; ḱ; k > pʰ; tʰ; cʰ; čʰ; ḱʰ; kʰ / s_, š_
h, x > x /χ ~ h/
r > ṙ /r/ / when initial or geminated
r > r /ɾ/ / otherwise
l > ł /ɫ/ / between vowels
ɣ > disappears / before sonorant
mn > m
mň > ň
geminate consonant > single consonant
Tr > Č (in some dialects, preserved or instead > Ḱ)
θr; ðr > š; ž
Kl, Tl > Ḱ
ľ > l
pre-tonic vowel loss whenever possible, otherwise generally > ə (but sometimes preserved)
 Forms consonant clusters that are resolved as follows:
  nasal + obstruent > nasal assimilates to place of articulation of obstruent
  obstruent clusters assimilate to voicing of final obstruent
  ṙ > r / in clusters
  N + r/ř/l/ł > stop homorganic to nasal is inserted (but ň + r > ndr; n/ň + l/ł > nd)
  N + ľ > ňǵ
  s + r/ř/l/ł > str/stř/stṙ/skl/skł
  š + r/ř/ṙ/l/ł > štr/štř/štṙ/škl/škł
  z/ž + r/ř/ṙ > epenthetic -d- inserted
  affricate + stop > affricate becomes corresponding appropriately voiced fricative
  initial ř + consonant > ř becomes post-alveolar fricative
  T + s/z > c/ʒ
  Č + s/z > č/ǯ
  etc
vowel harmony:
  unstressed vowels harmonize with stressed vowel in frontedness and sometimes roundedness (especially with high vowels)
   back (a; ə; ɨ, u) <-> front (e; e; i, y)
   unrounded (ɨ, i) <-> rounded (u, y)
  frontedness of stressed vowel may be affected by adjacent consonants (details TBD)
  stressed a sometimes > æ
l, ł > merge before obstruents - become ł before velar/post-velar, and l otherwise
r, ṙ, ř > merge before obstruents - become ř before dental, and r otherwise
r > ṙ / _n
r > ṙ / after consonants
ɨ, ə > merge to ə (trace of distinction remains in low vs mixed vowel harmony)

Transcription differences without significant sound change:
 ɣ > h /ɦ ~ ʁ/
 Cʰ > C

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Celabrian personal pronouns
Person and number Absolutive Emphatic1 Ergative Dative Genitive Ablative Locative Instrumental Adverbial Vocative Possessive suffix2 Copulative suffix3
0th jæk akak jækiq jækid jækix jæke jækim jækiv jæken jæko -ak -ak
1st Singular jam akam jaməq jaməd jaməx jama jaməm jaməv jaman jamo -am -am
Dual ned aknad nediq nedid nedix nede nedim nediv neden nedo -nad -om
Plural vom eḱňe vomuq vomud vomux voma vomum vomuv voman vomo -na -om
2nd Singular Informal tjev akət tjeviq tjevid tjevix tjeve tjevim tjeviv tjeven tjevo -ət -as
Formal řan akka řanəq řanəd řanəx řana řanəm řanəv řanan řano -g̊a -ot
Dual gad akkad gadəq gadəd gadəx gada gadəm gadəv gadan gado -g̊ad -ot
Plural vym eḱḱe vymyq vymyd vymyx vyme vymym vymyv vymen vymo -g̊a -ot
3rd Singular Animate řev akəř řeviq řevid řevix řeve řevim řeviv řeven řevo -əř -aθ
Inanimate an akən (anəq) anəd anəx ana anəm anəv anan ano -ən -an
Dual Animate ṭyn akəš ṭynyq ṭynyd ṭynyx ṭyne ṭynym ṭynyv ṭynen ṭyno -əš -at
Plural Animate tøt eḱiš tøtyq tøtyd tøtyx tøte tøtym tøtyv tøten tøto -əš -at
Inanimate peł eḱin (pełiq) pełid pełix pełe pełim pełiv pełen peło -ən -an
Reflexive xon akəx xonuq xonud xonux xona xonum xonuv xonan xono -əx̊ -ax̊

Notes:

1 Formed from the noun ak (pl. eḱ) "self" with possessive suffixes.

2 Possessive suffixes are stressed. The third person inanimate suffix -ən is distinguished from the definite article by stress.

3 Copulative suffixes are unstressed.

Nouns

Cases

Case endings are unstressed.

Case Usage Ending Notes
Absolutive Citation form; subject of intransitive verb; object of transitive verb; object of adposition –
Ergative Animate agent of transitive verb -əq
Dative Recipient, destination, motion towards (lative), purpose -əd
Genitive Possessor -əx Can take additional case endings.
Ablative Origin, motion away, part of something (partitive) -a Can take additional case endings. Identical to partitive and plural/mass indefinite article.
Locative Location -əm
Instrumental Instrument, means; inanimate agent of transitive verb; cause/reason -əv
Adverbial Forms adverbs, "as" -an
Vocative Used for addressing someone/something -o

Number

Nouns can be singular or plural. Regular plurals are formed with the suffix -an. Many common nouns have irregular plural stems.

Definiteness

There are three levels of definiteness in Celabrian:

  • Definite: Something specific that is known to both the speaker and listener, that has been previously mentioned, or that is uniquely specified. Equivalent to English "the" in "I saw the car."
  • Semidefinite: Something specific that is identifiable by the speaker but not the listener or that has not been previously mentioned. Equivalent to English "a" in "I saw a car."
  • Indefinite: Refers non-specifically to a member of a class. Equivalent to English "a" in "I need a car."

Nouns unmarked for definiteness are semidefinite by default. The definite article is -ən (added before case endings).

The indefinite article for singular, countable nouns is mə-. For plural and mass nouns, it is -a (equivalent to the ablative case ending and the partitive article).

Nouns with possessive suffixes do not take the definite article, but can take the indefinite article. Possessive suffixes come before case endings and the plural/uncountable indefinite suffix.

In addition to definite and indefinite articles, Celabrian has partitive and negative articles. The partitive article is -a (equivalent to the ablative case and the plural/mass indefinite article). It refers to a non-specific quantity of something. It is equivalent to English "some" in "I want some coffee."

The negative article is ka-. It specifies none of something, and is equivalent to English "no" in "I see no car."

All articles are unstressed. The articles are summarized in the table below:

Article Usage Ending
possessed singular countable plural countable uncountable
Definite Something specific that is known to both speaker and listener, that has been previously mentioned, or that is uniquely specified. – -ən
Semidefinite Something specific that is identifiable by the speaker but not the listener, or that has not been previously mentioned. –
Indefinite A non-specific member of a class. (same as unpossessed noun) mə- -a
Partitive A non-specific quantity of something. -a
Negative None of something. ka-

Demonstratives

The far demonstrative is identical to the definite article. To specify the distance, a place adverb can be added.

Proximity is indicated with the suffix -s, which is added before case endings. When added to a word ending in the definite article, the -n is dropped.

Interrogatives

The interrogative is formed from nouns by suffixing -ǵ after any demonstrative endings and before case endings.

Adjectives

Adjectives are declined the same as nouns, agreeing with them in case and number. An adjective can also be used independently.

Nisba adjectives

Nisba adjectives are formed with the suffix -i.

Numbers

# Cardinal Ordinal
0 səfṙ, næk səfṙətə, nækte
1 řon pavṙə
2 ǵøq ṭyte
3 či čite
4 štyr štyrte
5 peč pečte
6 x́aš x́aštə
7 šta štatə
8 te tete
9 ne nete
10 ṭjas ṭjaste
11 šæn šæntə
12 tjud tjude
13 ṭjasči ṭjasčite
14 ṭjasštyr ṭjasštyrte
20 ksət ksətə
21 ksətřon ksətřontə
30 ksətṭjas ksətṭjastə
31 ksətšæn ksətšænte
# Cardinal Ordinal
32 ksəttjud ksəttjudə
40 ṭyksət ṭyksətə
50 ṭyksətṭjas ṭyksətṭjastə
60 pečud pečude
70 pečudṭjas pečudṭjastə
80 štyrksət štyrksətə
90 štyrksətṭjas štyrksətṭjastə
100 ḳ́id (pečksət) ḳ́ide (pečksətə)
101 ḳ́idřon (pečksətřon) ḳ́idřontə (pečksətřontə)
110 ḳ́idṭjas (pečksətṭjas) ḳ́idṭjastə (pečksətṭjastə)
120 seč sečte
130 sečṭjas sečṭjastə
140 sečksət sečksətə
200 ṭyḳ́id ṭyḳ́ide
300 čiḳ́id čiḳ́ide
1,000 zil zilte
2,000 ṭyzil ṭyzilte
10^4 myřð myřðe
10^6 ḳ́idmyřð ḳ́idmyřðe

Verbs

Structure

Verbs are made of the following components: Preverbal particle-Indirect object prefix-Agent prefix-[TAM prefix-(Derivation prefix-Stem-Derivation suffix)-TAM suffix]-Personal suffix

Not all components have to present in a given verb form. The portion within round brackets is known as the derived stem, and the portion within square brackets is known as the tense stem.

Preverbal particles

Personal affixes

There are three kinds of personal affixes, each with its designated position in the verb form. They are (in order of appearance):

  1. Indirect object prefixes: represent verbal arguments in the dative, ablative, locative, and/or instrumental cases.
  2. Agent prefixes: represent verbal argument in the ergative case.
  3. Personal suffixes: represent verbal argument in the absolutive case. They are equivalent to the corresponding copulative suffix.
Person and Number Prefix Suffix
Indirect object Agent
0 akə- kə- -ak
1 S amə- mə- -am
D + P ana- na- -om
2 SI atə- tə- -as
SF + D + P ag̊a- g̊a- -ot
3 SA ařə- řə- -aθ
SI + PI anə- – -an
DA + PA ata- ta- -at
R ax̊a- x̊a- –

Stems

A Celabrian verb has three stems, known as the perfective, imperfective, and oblique stems. Regular verbs form the perfective and imperfective stems from the oblique via the suffixes -an- and -as- respectively. Irregular verbs have unpredictable stems.

Derived stems are formed by adding derivational affixes to the primary stem. Derived verbs include causatives, antipassives, and applicatives. Tense stems are formed by adding affixes to the main stem, whether primary or derived.

Tense, mood, aspect

Celabrian tenses, moods, and aspects1
Tense Mood Usage Stem Notes
Present frame Non-present frame
Aorist Indicative Simple action in past. Simple action in frame of reference. P- The aorist is considered the default tense. It expresses a simple action without reference to timeframe or completion.
Subjunctive Simple action in frame of reference. P-aš-
Perfect Indicative An action in the past that has present relevance. An action before frame of reference that is still relevant. ṭa-P- The perfect prefix ṭa- can be added to other tenses to convert them into perfects.
Subjunctive An action before frame of reference that is still relevant. ṭa-P-aš-
Imperfect Indicative An ongoing action in frame of reference. I-
Subjunctive I-aš-
Habitual Indicative A habitual/repeated action in frame of reference. O-əm-
Subjunctive O-əm-aš-
Gnomic Indicative Expresses general truths. O-əł-
Subjunctive O-əł-aš-
Past Indicative An action in the past. An action that took place before frame of reference. pa-P- The past prefix pa- can be added to other tenses to place them in a past frame of reference.
Subjunctive An action that took place before frame of reference. pa-P-aš-
Future Indicative An action in the future. An action that will take place after frame of reference. ho-P- The future prefix ho- can be added to other tenses to place them in a future frame of reference.
Subjunctive An action that will take place after frame of reference. ho-P-aš-
Present Indicative An action in the present. An action taking place during frame of reference. nə-P- The present prefix nə- can be added to other tenses to place them in a present frame of reference.
Subjunctive An action that is taking place during the frame of reference. nə-P-aš-
Imperative Forms a command or request in the second person. – SI: O
SF/P:O-(ə)t		 The imperative is only used for the second person, and only when it is the absolutive argument of the verb. Otherwise, the jussive is used. The jussive can also be used as a more gentle/polite affirmative second person command.
Jussive Forms a command or request, or expresses an obligation. Expresses an obligation in the frame of reference. O-
Optative Expresses a wish, or encourages an action. Expresses a wish in the frame of reference. O-aš- Can be translated as "should/must" when the subject has control over the action, and "may" when the subject does not. Can also be used as a more gentle alternative to the jussive or imperative.
Conditional Expresses a hypothetical event/state that is dependent on some condition. ṭa-O- Can be translated as "would (have)".
Presumptive Expresses a hypothetical event/state that is presupposed to be true. ṭa-O-aš- The presumptive is often paired with the conditional.

Notes:

1 P = perfective stem; I = imperfective stem; O = oblique stem; Stress is always on last syllable before personal ending.

Voice

Voice Usage Derived
stem		 Notes
Active Default form of a verb. –
Applicative Promotes an indirect object to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. et-
Antipassive Promotes ergative agent to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. The cause (if present) takes the instrumental case. -ar Unlike the causative, if a cause is mentioned, it is not purposely causing the event.
Causative Promotes ergative agent to absolutive, and demotes absolutive argument to dative. Causer takes ergative case. -dor Somewhat similar to antipassive, but it is implied that the causer is purposely causing the event.

Denominal verbs

Syntax

Constituent order

The most common word order is AXTV, where V = verb, T = theme (absolutive argument: object of transitive, subject of intransitive), A = agent (ergative argument), X = other arguments. However, other words orders are allowed and common. In particular, words may be placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis, especially if followed by the emphatic particle ǯe.

Noun phrase

Modifiers may precede or follow the noun they modify.

Verb phrase

The verb most often occurs at the end of the phrase.

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - koxan

Seasons - x́øren
English Celabrian
spring gəṙ
summer mæ
fall aṙ
winter zmor
Gregorian months - milædijen mišen
English Celabrian
January ǵňoř
February pṙoř
March mařʒ
April bṙił
May maj
June ḳ́aršoř
July ǵyl
August hušt
September štabṙ
October tebṙ
November nebṙ
December ṭjasabṙ
Days of the week -
English Celabrian
Sunday řonžvata
Monday ṭyžvata
Tuesday čižvata
Wednesday štyržvata
Thursday pečžvata
Friday ǯumhə
Saturday šəmad
Parts of the day -
English Celabrian
day løm
dawn røre
morning fšiš
noon mježløm
afternoon gəfṙ
evening šep
dusk vøṙ
night natə
midnight mježnatə
Units of time -
English Celabrian
second θæniye
minute mot
hour koxə
day løm
week řat
month miš
season x́øre
year ǵat
Time adverbs -
English Celabrian
now ni
then
recently, a short time ago
earlier
soon, shortly
later
always jeje
often
sometimes
rarely
never veve
ever
still, yet
already
today lømys
yesterday ze
last night zenatə
tomorrow night monnatə
before yesterday
two nights ago
after tomorrow
this week
last week
next week
this year ǵatəs
next year

Colours - ṙəŋanən

Colours - ṙəŋanən
English Celabrian
white barǯə
grey kani
black
red ḱermił
orange narənǯi
brown qaxvi
yellow blør
green zjeł
blue
pink
purple
golden zlati

Example texts

Other resources

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