Nankôre: Difference between revisions

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|name = Nankôre

|nativename = Nankôre

|pronunciation = /nan.'ko:re/

|pronunciation = nan.'ko:re

|~~region~~ = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]]

|setting = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]]

|states = ~~Nanhoshka~~ Kôya

|states = Nanhoska Kôya /nan'hoʃka 'ko:ja/

|speakers = ~~3,232~~,~~430~~

|ethnicity = Nanhoska people

|speakers = 2,324

|date = 2014

|familycolor = panlaffic

|fam1 = Nahenic

|fam2 = Nankoric

|fam2 = Shakhtabaric

|fam3 = Nankoric

|nation = Koya Island

|~~iso1~~ = nk

|script1 = Latn

|~~iso2~~ = ~~nnk~~

|creator = User:Anyar

~~|script = [[wikipedia~~:~~Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] (Nankore)~~

}}

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Nankôre, from the words ''nan'' ("man, human") and ''kôre'' ("speech"), is spoken by the Nanhoshka people of Kôya Island. There are two main dialects, the Konishmak, located in the Northeastern Coastal Mountains, and the Sapshira, encompassing the western and southern parts of the country. The dialects differ chiefly in pronunciation and differences in certain lexical items, but are otherwise mutually intelligible.

For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery. Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the ~~Republic of Minhay~~, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu. Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples. Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry. Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship. Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages. Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs. In addition, a third language, [[Nahónda]], also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast. Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family.

For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery. Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the Minhastim Karak, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu. Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples. Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry. Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship. Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages. Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs. In addition, a third language, [[Nahónda]], also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast. Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family.

==Typology and Grammatical Overview==

Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the ~~copula~~, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc.

Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the auxiliary, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc.

Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment. Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct–inverse_alignment Direct-Inverse marking] to indicate core argument roles. The nominal hierarchy is complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed. Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context.

The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different ~~copula~~ paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs.

The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different auxiliary paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs.

==Phonology==

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| ʔ

|-

| a,ā, â~~, á~~

| a,ā, â

| a,ā,â~~, á~~

| a,ā,â

| a, a:

|-

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| s, s̺, ʃ

|-

| š

| ś, š<ref>Found mostly in older linguistic texts before 1965. The character has largely fell into disuse afterwards.</ref>

| sh

| ʃ

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}}

If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#~~The_Copula~~|~~copula~~ ]] obligatorily marks for number. ~~Number~~ is indicated on the ~~copula~~ by the affix ''-n-''. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the ~~copula~~ is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below:

If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]] obligatorily marks for number. Plural number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix ''-n-''. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below:

Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient:

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| translation = I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently.

}}

==== The Nominal Hierarchy ====

Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships. Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient. Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients. If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix ''tā-/ta-'', is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb ''itá'''. Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked.

Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, number, or gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships. Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient. Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients. If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix ''tā-/ta-'', is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb ''itá'''. Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked.

Where a given NP falls within the animacy hierarchy must be memorized in order to use the verbal inverse prefix ''tā-/ta-'' correctly (see section on [[Nankôre#Verbs|Verbs]] for additional details regarding inverse marking).

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| colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Pet (usually carnivorous) >> Non-Pet (usually raised for food)

| Amphibians

| Streams~~, brooks, springs~~

| Streams Brooks Springs

| Snow

| Small Trees

| Cliffs~~, jagged~~ outcroppings~~, tumuli, boulders~~

| Cliffs Jagged outcroppings Tumuli Boulders

| Fabrics~~, fibers, skins, clothing~~

| Fabrics Fibers Skins Clothing

| Emotions

|-

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| Wind

| Fruit/Nut Trees

| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"| Flat land ~~or gently~~ rolling landscape~~; plains~~

| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"| Flat land Gently rolling landscape Plains

| Wood

| Thoughts

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| Breeze

| Crustaceans

| Bushes/Shrubs

| Bushes Shrubs

| Buildings

| Disease

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| Mollusks

| Muggy weather

| Mushrooms/Fungi/Mosses/Gelatinous sea invertebrates

| Mushrooms Fungi Mosses Gelatinous sea invertebrates

| Stones, rocks, pebbles

| Death

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If two nouns with equal animacy but different number appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun. However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status.

If two nouns with equal animacy but different number (obtained either through pronominal referents or context) appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun. However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status.

In situations were two nouns have equal animacy ''and'' equal number, the rules for assigning the position each core argument in the hierarchy is as follows:

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* -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. ''kuras'' (woman), ''kurasno'' (girl)

* -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. ''kurasras'' (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation

* -ra-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: nahón -> na~~-ra~~-hón-ho (big/fat, ugly man); ~~very~~ similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog"

* -rV-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: ''nahón'' -> ''nannarohono'', from ''na~na~ro-hón-ho'' (big/fat ugly man); similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog"

==== Adjectival Suffixes ====

Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''-kerek'' > ''~~karyak itá~~'' "~~to be~~ red". Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever"). Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three. The suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible. ~~Nevertheless it appears that scope~~ determines the ~~ordering~~ of the suffixes~~: suffixes~~ with wider scope ~~tend to appear~~ towards the end ~~e.g~~. "''~~Kenenkor~~-pita-~~shune~~-~~une itá''" (~~bed plush-red-soft-very ~~3S.~~COP ~~) "~~It is a very soft, red and plush bed."

Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives. They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies. These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes. Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''karyak itá'' > ''-kerek'' >, as in ''Kurasnokerek '' "the girl is red" (i.e. the girl is blushing). Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever"). Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three. The suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible. Scope ordering determines the position of the suffixes relative to each other, with those of wider scope appearing towards the end, as in the following example:

{{Gloss

|phrase = Kenenkorpitasnune iná'.

| IPA = /kɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ/

| morphemes = kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná

| gloss = bed-plush-red-soft-very COP

| translation = It is a very soft, red and plush bed.

}}

While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class. Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb.

{{Gloss

|phrase = Hosiari sikenenkorpitasnune iná torocak ta'itāhi.

| IPA = /ho'ʃari sɪkɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ torot͡ʃak taʔɪt'a:hi/

| morphemes = hosiari si-kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná ta-horoci=ak ta-itá'-hi

| gloss = PROX.DEM CONN-bed-plush-red-soft-very COP INV-sleep=1S+3S INV-AUX-CAUS

| translation = This very soft, red and plush bed makes me sleep (well).

}}

There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes:

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# Other Attributes

===Deictics===

===Demonstratives and Deictics===

===== Spatial =====

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|-

! '''Proximal '''

| ~~[independent particle]~~

| hosiairi /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/

| =skoro || this one near me; now || nan=iskoro "this man here"; oriyat=hepi "today"

| =skoro

|

* this one near me

* now

|

* ''hosiari sinán nan=iskoro'' "this man here"

* ''oriyat=hepi'' "today"

|

* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: ''-nussar-''

* Nahónda: ''nótsalo''

|-

! '''Medio-Proximal'''

| ~~[independent particle]~~

| yaiyairi

| =hori, =ori || that one by you; just awhile ago|| nan=hori "that man next to you"

| =hori =ori

|

* that one by you

* just awhile ago

|

* ''yaiyairi sinán nan=hori'' "that man next to you"

|

* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: ''-eyyar-, -yyar-''

* Nahónda: ''iyáyalo''

|-

! '''Distal'''

| ~~[independent particle]~~

| paipairi

| =nko, =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man""

| =nko =kekori

|

* yonder, that one near him/her/them

* yesterday, a few days ago

|

*''paipairi sinán'' ''nan=inko'' "yonder man"

|

* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: ''-ppeyyar-''

* Nahónda: ''pʼáyalo

|-

! '''Invisible'''

| ~~[independent particle]~~

| rosiairi /ɾoʃ'jaɪɾi/

| =nanak ~~|| that one beyond the horizon, or occluded by a distant object|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"~~

|

=nanak

|

* that one beyond the horizon, or occluded by a distant object

|

* ''rosiairi sinán nan=nanak'' "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"

|

* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: ''-ruššar-''

|}

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| Distal || =nko || =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man"; oriyat=kekori "yesterday", ono=kekori "a few days ago"

|-

| Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago"

| Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago"

|}

-->

===== Temporal =====

The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. ''Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' '', "A year ago, Anut flew to America". In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, ''yorai'', cannot appear after the initial clause. Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in ''Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'''.

<!--

, and in the process replace the ~~copula~~'s tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back". Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy."

, and in the process replace the auxiliary's tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back". Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy."

-->

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

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|-

! Many

| ~~etco~~

| eco

| ~~etcisi~~= ~~etci~~= ~~etc~~=

| ecisi= eci= ec=

|-

! Both

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! Few

| cato

| ~~catci~~= ~~catc~~=

| caci= cac=

|-

! Another/Other

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{{Gloss

|phrase =~~Ka tahone~~, ra' ~~taspitá~~?

|phrase =Kā tahône, ra' tasip'itá'?

| IPA = ka ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ ~~taʃpɪ~~'ta

| IPA = ka: ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃɪpʔ'ɪta

| morphemes = Ka ta=~~honé~~, ra' ta-sp-Ø-itá-ʔ

| morphemes = kā ta=hone, ra' ta-sip-Ø-itá-ʔ

| gloss = 2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS

| translation = Who is making you cry?

}}

The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''~~ani~~'', implies incredulity:

The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''aní'', implies incredulity:

{{Gloss

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}}

Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the ~~copula~~. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the ~~copula~~:

Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the auxiliary. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the auxiliary:

{{Gloss

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Among the Interrogative pronouns, ''ra' '' ranks the highest in animacy; nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy.

''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra' '', where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''' for the rest.

''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> for the rest.

<!--

=== Demonstratives ===

Attributive

~~=== Pronouns ===~~

~~The first group of pronouns are used in intransitive clauses. They consist of both independent and cliticized forms. The animacy of each pronoun is arranged in the following hierarchy:~~

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

!

! Pronominal !! Attributive<ref>The attributive forms derive from the pronominal + ''si-'' connective. Note that the connective cliticizes to the demonstrative, not the noun head as expected.</ref> !! Adverbial <ref>The adverbial ''-e'' suffix derives from a putative ''*e='' (c.f. Minhast ''eyha'' "there is/are") that cliticized to the pronominal form.</ref> !! Minhast Cognates

|-

! ~~Pronominal hierarchy~~

! Proximal

|| hāpe || hapsi || hāpe, hape || sappu

|-

! Medioproximal

|| nas || napsi || nāse, nase || naš

|-

| ~~style=~~"~~text-align:center~~"~~|1st >> 2nd >> 3rd~~

! Distal

|| yas || yapsi ||yāse, yase || wašia

|-

! Invisible

|| ucce, ucca || ucci || ucce || suxta <!-- from *husta, c.f. Minhast suxta "thither", x(Minhast) vs h/0(Nan.), št(Min.) vs cc(Nan.)

|}

~~Plurality generally does not affect the~~ animacy ~~level across persons~~. ~~However~~, ~~if two 3rd person arguments have~~ the ~~same animacy and one~~ of the ~~arguments is plural~~, ~~then~~ the ~~plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level~~.

-->

=== Pronouns ===

Nankôre pronouns distinguish animacy, number, and transitivity. The transitive forms are portmanteaus, which in combination with the presence or absence of the verb's inverse marker, encodes both the agent and patient.

~~The~~ following ~~table lists the forms of the simple pronouns~~:

Animacy in Nankôre is arranged in the following hierarchy:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

~~|+ '''Intransitive Pronouns'''~~

|-

~~! rowspan ="2"| Person~~

~~! colspan="2"|Singular~~

~~! colspan="3" | Plural~~

|-

! ~~Independent~~

! Pronominal hierarchy

~~! Clitic~~

|-

~~! Long Form~~

| style="text-align:center"|1st > 2nd > 3rd > 4th

~~! Short Form~~

~~! Clitic~~

|-

~~! 1~~

| style="text-align:center"| ak

~~| =ák~~

~~| akôs~~

~~| aóy<br/~~>~~yoy~~

~~| =yoy~~

|-

~~! 2~~

~~| style="text-align:center"| kā<br/~~> ka

~~| =ká~~

~~| kakôs~~

~~| koy~~

~~| =koy~~

|-

~~! 3~~

~~| style="text-align:center"| tā <br/~~> ta

~~| =tá~~

~~| takôs~~

~~| toy~~

~~| =toy~~

|-

|}

Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons. However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level.

~~If used as a core argument,~~ the ~~singular forms and the plural short forms may appear just before the clause-final copula ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You~~ are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. ''Nitoriká 'itá!''. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as ~~in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother).~~

The paradigm for the transitive pronouns are as follows:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

|+ '''Transitive Portmanteau Pronouns'''

|-

! colspan="4"| Singular

! colspan="5"| Singular

! colspan="4"| Plural

! colspan="6"| Plural

|-

!

! 1S

! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 4S !! 1P.INC || 1P.EXCL !! 2P !! 3P || 4P

! 2S

! 3S

! 1P

! 2P

! 3P

|-

! 1S

|

| -- || ekká' || ekenko || enkár || -- || -- || kamme || enka ||nerá

--

| ~~yakká~~'

| ~~kattá'~~

|

--

| ~~yakkóy~~

| ~~nattóy~~

|-

! 2S

| ~~akká~~'

| ekká' kā ka || --|| kanko kā ka || korí || kanná || kanné || -- || kanenko || kâre

|

--

| ~~kattí~~

| ~~yakkós~~

|

--

| ~~natós~~

|-

! 3S

| ~~yettá'~~

| ekenko|| kanko kā ka || -- || enkará || enko || nenko || kanenko || -- || kankór

| ~~kattí~~

| ~~kettá'~~

| ~~yanós~~

|

| ~~tarós~~

|-

! ~~colspan="8"~~| ~~Plural x Plural~~

! 4S

| enkár || korí || enkará || -- || ánkare || nénkare || kánnare || eranka || --

|-

! colspan="4"| 1P

! colspan="11"| Plural x Plural

|

|-

--

! colspan="5"| 1P.INCL

| ~~okóy koy~~

| -- || -- || ánkame || ananka || ánnahi

| ~~otóy toy~~

|-

! colspan="4"| 2P

! colspan="5"| 1P.EXCL

| ~~kakkóy~~

| -- || -- || nékkame || nenka || énnahi

|

|-

--

! colspan="5"| 2P

| ~~koy~~

| ánkame || nékkame || -- || nekákkame || nákkame

|-

! colspan="5"| 3P

||ananka || nenka || nekákkame || -- || nékkahi

|-

! colspan="4"| 3P

! colspan="5"| 4P

| ~~okkóy toy '''(!)'''~~

|| ánnahi || énnahi|| nákkame || nékkahi || --

| ~~ottóy toy~~

| ~~toy~~

|-

|}

Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role. However, an inverse affix ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' is prefixed to the primary verb, as well as a redundant ''ta-'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role.

~~As earlier stated~~, ~~nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, nor are case clitics attached to them to indicate case relations. Transitive verbs take two NPs~~ as ~~core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun~~ in the ~~animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role. However, an inverse affix~~ ''tā=/~~tāh~~=/ta=/t=~~'' is prefixed to the primary verb, as well as a redundant ''ta~~-~~'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower~~-~~animacy argument to Agent role.~~

The intransitive forms consist of both independent and cliticized forms, as illustrated in the following table:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

|+ '''Intransitive Pronouns'''

|-

! rowspan ="2"| Person

! colspan="2" | Singular

! colspan="2" | Plural

|-

! Independent !! Clitic !! Long Form !! Clitic

|-

! 1

| style="text-align:center"| eyak || =yak =ak || aná || =na

|-

! 2

| style="text-align:center"| eká || =ka || kamme || =kamme

|-

! 3

| style="text-align:center"| enko || =ko =na || enká || =enká =nka =ka

|-

! 4

| style="text-align:center"| erá || =ra || nami || =nami

|}

~~[OBSOLETE] Unlike~~ the ~~Intransitive~~ forms, the ~~portmanteau Transitive~~ forms ~~come~~ before the ~~main verb, not the~~ auxiliary ~~verb~~, e.g. ''~~Akostos karok tā~~'itá' '~~' , "I ate it". Sometimes~~ the ~~portmanteau is cliticized~~ to the main verb, ~~as in~~ ''~~Akostos=karok tā~~'itá' ''. ~~If the Inverse marker appears simultaneously with the Transitive portmanteau pronoun~~, the ~~preverbal Inverse marker ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' cliticizes to the portmanteau~~ pronoun~~. Since~~ the ~~Inverse voice is double-marked, the Inverse form of~~ the ~~auxiliary~~ ''~~itấ~~' '~~' also is used~~, as in ~~the improbable sentence,~~ ''~~Takostos karok tahortā~~'~~itá~~'/~~Takostoskarok tahortā'itá' ''~~, ~~from ''Tā-akostos-karok tahortā'itá' '', "He/she/it ate me"~~.

If used as a core argument, the intransitive singular forms and the plural '''short''' forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. ''Nitoriká 'itá!''. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother).

~~Obliques~~ cannot be inserted into the verb ~~complex~~. If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''. Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique. To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence.

As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, and the same is true for pronouns. Moreover, oblique pronominal arguments cannot be inserted into the verb phrase, but instead must appear before it. If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, particularly in topic-comment structures, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''. Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique. To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence.

===Verbs===

The verb phrase in Nankôre ~~require~~ at a minimum an initial verb, plus the ~~copula. An initial verb may be~~ the ~~main verb itself~~, ~~or an auxiliary~~. A sort of division of labor exists between these ~~components~~ components; ~~a certain~~ set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another to ~~another~~.

The verb phrase in Nankôre requires at a minimum an initial verb, plus one of the clause-final auxiliaries, '' 'itá' '' for transitive clauses or intransitive clauses where the subject's theta-role is that of Agent, and '' 'iná'' ' for all other intransitive clauses. A sort of division of labor exists between these components; one set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another set to the other component.

The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb. All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb:

The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb. All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb.

*Initial Verb

#Inverse

#Aspect

However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless ~~if it is~~ the initial verb ~~of the VP~~ or not:

However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless of whether the verb occurs initial position in the verb phrase or not:

*Main Verb

#Evidentials

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! Evidentials !! Meaning !! Example

|-

| -kor || hearsay || Example

|-

| Example || Example || Example

|-

| Example || Example || Example

|}

Finally, the ~~copula~~ hosts the following set of ~~morphemes, which are not clitics but actual~~ affixes:

Modal verbs, when they occur, follow the main verb, displaying leftward scope-ordering, e.g. ''Kôreak képorih iná'!'' "I am trying to speak!".

Finally, the auxiliary '' 'iná'/'itá' '' hosts the following set of affixes:

*Copula

#Inverse

#Tense

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====The Verb Phrase Structure ====

The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the ~~copula~~ marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''.

The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the auxiliary marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''.

{{Gloss

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}}

~~[[File:Nankore_VP_~~-~~_Version_2~~.~~png|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of~~ the ~~Nankôre~~ Verb ~~Phrase]]~~

The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN).

Although Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language, templatic representations like those of its polysynthetic cousins

Minhast and Nahónda, provide a useful visual tool to demonstrate the Nankôre verb phrase structure:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

|+ '''Verb Conjugation Table'''

|-

! Position !! Type !! Subtype !! Realization

|-

! -3

| Inverse Marker 1

| style="background-color:black"|

| ta=

|-

! rowspan="3"| -2

| rowspan="3"| Coverbs

|-

| Directionals/Positionals ||

|-

| Modals ||

|-

! 1

| Aspect

| rowspan="3" style="background-color:black"|x

| Examplexxx

|-

! 0

| Primary Verb

|

|-

! +1

| Quasi-Incorporated Noun

| Examples

|-

! +2

| rowspan="4"| Auxiliary

| Inverse Marker 2

| ta-

|-

! +3

| Inchoative

|-

! +4

| Causative

|

|-

! +5

| Irrealis

|

|}

The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Copula. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN).

====Coverbs====

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb Coverbs] in Nankôre formal grammar are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments. Although several types of coverbs exist, the Directionals-Positionals coverbs are the most prominent. Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]]. In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs". The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede all other modal verbs, which are scope-ordered.

====Coverbs====

Coverbs are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments. ~~There are two classes~~ of coverbs, Directionals-Positionals coverbs~~, and Modals~~. Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]]. In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs". The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede ~~the Modals~~.

=====Directional-Positional Coverbs=====

Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form. The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it. Thus the coverb ''sanha'', in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, ''san'', always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun. Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP. Clitics attach only to the short form. Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive ''cor-''.

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|}

====~~=Modals=~~====

====Aspect====

The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table:

~~Modal verbs follow~~ the ~~Directional-Positional coverbs~~. ~~Modals include~~ a ~~wide range of expressions~~, ~~such as ability~~, ~~potentiality~~, ~~similitude, desire, inclination, etc.~~

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

|-

! !! ~~Modal~~!! Meaning

! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning

|-

! style=""| ~~Potential~~

! style=""| Perfect

| ~~makan~~||

| -Ø||

|-

~~! style=""| Necessitive~~

! style=""| Semelfactive

~~| nehái||~~

| =no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit

|-

~~! style=""| Desiderative~~

~~| tasmi||~~

|-

~~! style=""| Inceptive-Inchoative~~

~~| yari||~~

|-

~~! style=""| Resumptive~~

~~| kenoy||~~

|-

|}

~~====Aspect====~~

The verb, in contrast to the copula, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table:

~~{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"~~

|-

~~! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning~~

|-

~~! style=""| Perfect~~

~~| -Ø||~~

|-

! style=""| Semelfactive

| =no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit

|-

! style=""| Simple Imperfect

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|-

! style=""| Emphatic-Factual

| -mas

| -mas -masne

|-

! style=""| Hearsay

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|}

====~~The Copula~~ ====

=====Modals=====

~~In terms of morphological complexity, the copula hosts more affixes and clitics than~~ the main verb~~; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice~~, ~~it also encodes tense~~, ~~number~~, ~~irrealis~~, ~~inchoativity~~, ~~and causation through a complex series of affixation~~.

Modal verbs follow the main verb. Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc.

The ~~copula~~ serves two purposes:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

* To links noun phrases to their predicates:

|-

! !! Modal!! Meaning !! Nahenic Cognates

{{Gloss

|-

|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi?

! style=""| Potential

| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/

| makán|| be able to, can

|

|-

! style=""| Necessitive

| nehái|| need to

|

|-

! style=""| Desiderative

| tasmi|| want to

|

|-

! style=""| Conative

| si s=|| to try to, attempt

| Cognate with Minhast ''sunep-'' (to push)

|-

! style=""| Inceptive

| yári|| begin to

|

|-

! style=""| Resumptive

| kenóy|| again

|

|-

|}

Examples of usage of the modal verbs follow:

{{Gloss

|phrase = Ekenko tuas sitá', yankór<ref>From reconstructed P-Nahenic *''wa=man=kor'' (CONN=SEQ=and.yet).</ref> seskoro sioykar ináka.

| IPA = Ekenko tuaʃ 'ʃi'taʔ yan'koɾ 'ʃɛʃkoɾo 'ʃoɪkaɾ ɪ'naka

| morphemes = ekenko tuas s-itá' yankór se=skoro sioykar iná-ka.

| gloss = 1S.3S wash.out CON-AUX.TRN however reed=DEM.PROX good be-NEG.

| translation = I'm trying to wash (the stain) out, but this reed brush isn't good.

}}

====The Auxiliary ====

In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation.

The auxiliary serves two purposes:

* To links noun phrases to their predicates:

{{Gloss

|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi?

| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/

| morphemes = nan konkekma, yôri-ká ∅-iná-ʔ-hi

| gloss = human snake which-2S DIR-PRS.COP.STAT-S-IRR

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}}

The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the ~~copula~~ ''itá''':

The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the auxiliary ''itá''':

{{Gloss

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}}

Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense ~~copula~~ is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''tā'inta'''. The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead. This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward.

Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense auxiliary is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''tā'inta'''. The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead. This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward.

The Inchoative consists of a the prefix ''yis-'', which frequently occurs as a circumfix, ''y''- + ''-s-'', for certain conjugations. The affix causes the Inverse affix ''ta(h)-'' to palatize; the ''-s-'' segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing ''-n-'' affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation. Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the ''-s-'' segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization. When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect. The ''-s-'' component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix ''-saxt-''.

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The Causative is marked with the affixes ''sip-'' or ''-sp-'', which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast ''-šp-'' and Nahónda ''-ps-''. As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a ''si-'' marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the ''si-'' connective. The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the ''si-'' connective for topicalization.

The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the ~~copula~~. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?" The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''.

The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the auxiliary. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?" The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''.

=====Transitive Paradigm =====

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~itán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'ita'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yistán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá')

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'~~itán~~ (pis'~~itán~~)

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá'ita (pis'itá'ita')

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' (pisnitá')

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~sipnitán~~ (~~pisnitán~~)

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita' (pisnitá'ita')

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~ta’itán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~castán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~taspitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tānitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāsipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past ‡

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'~~itán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yôsitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hôsipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'~~intán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yôsintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hôsipnintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

Line 1,239:

Line 1,340:

! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'~~itán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~costán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāhópsintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'~~intán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~cosnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāhópsintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past

Line 1,272:

Line 1,373:

! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~sipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~sipnintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

Line 1,303:

Line 1,404:

! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~ta’nitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tasipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tānintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casnintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāsipnintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past

Line 1,336:

Line 1,437:

! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yistán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hisiptán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hisipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

Line 1,367:

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tahitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~castán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tasiphitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāhintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casintan~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casinta'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāsiphintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yipsitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pisiptan~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipta'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yipsintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pisipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

Line 1,431:

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~ta’pitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | caspitá

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tápsipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tápsintán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tápsipnitán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future

Line 1,464:

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nisiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~nisipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tantahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tantahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tasipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tānintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~casnintáhan~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáha'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāsipnintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintahá'ita

|-

! rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yistahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yistahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hisiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yisnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hispintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~hisipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

Line 1,559:

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tahitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisipitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tahisiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisiptahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāhintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~cahsintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhispintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāhisipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhisipnitahá'ita

|-

! rowspan="12" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yipsitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pisiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~yipsiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~pisipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahá'ita

|-

| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |

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! style="width:64.01pt; " | SG

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~taptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | taptahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitaháh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tapsiptahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptahá'ita

|-

! style="width:64.01pt; " | PL

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tāpintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~capsintahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintahá'ita

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitáh

| style="width:64.01pt; " | ~~tápsipnitahán~~

| style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitahá'ita

|}

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=====Intransitive-Active Paradigm =====

The paradigm for the ~~copula~~ with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity. ~~The intransitive~~ paradigm is ~~used for stative~~ verbs~~, NP arguments~~ that ~~are semantic Patients~~, ~~and also for NP arguments whose thematic roles~~ are ~~clearly that of Agents~~.

The paradigm for the ''itá'' auxiliary with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity. As in the transitive paradigm, an Agent is required as a core argument, but unlike the transitive paradigm, the ''ta-'' inverse marker never appears in the Intransitive-Active paradigm.

This use of the ''itá'' auxiliary demonstrates an underlying split intransitive morphosyntactic alignment, specifically of the Split-S subtype: only verbs that indicate agency can license the ''itá'' auxiliary, whilst non-volitional verbs are restricted to the ''iná'' auxiliary.

<!--

There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the ~~copula~~ indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient]. The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning.

There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the auxiliary indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient]. The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning.

-->

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"

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|}

===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm=====

The intransitive paradigm of the ~~copula~~ is listed in the table below:

Intransitive verb structures involve pairing a semantically stative or non-agentive verb with the auiliary ''iná''', a root cognate with the Minhast intransitive verbal ending ''-an''.

The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below:

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"

! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense

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|}

====~~Derivation~~ ====

===== Nominalization =====

Nankôre has a rich set of clitics and suffixes that serve as nominalizers. They are, in order of frequency:

* ''-pe'': Clausal relativizer, cognate with Minhast ''=naft''

{{Gloss

|phrase = Nan issiah pinninnináh'''pe''' pirút taporé ta'itá'.

| IPA =

| morphemes = nan issiah pinninnináh-pe pirút ta-poré ta-'itá'

| gloss = man come COP.FUT-NMLZ sasquatch INV-vanquish INV-COP

| translation = The (next) man who comes here shall defeat the Sasquatch.

}}

~~Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached~~ to ~~nominal roots~~, ~~often body parts, create verbs~~. ~~These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto~~-~~Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre~~'~~s distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach~~ to ~~nominal roots for body parts~~ to derive ~~verbs~~, ~~e.g. Minhast~~ ''~~kirim~~'' ~~(from~~ ''k-~~erum~~'', ~~literally~~ "~~make sound~~ with ~~the mouth) and Nahónda~~ ''~~teloma~~'' (from ''~~t-loma~~'', ~~note that~~ Minhast /k/ ~~maps~~ to ~~Nahónda /t/);~~ ''~~kirim~~'' ~~is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre~~ ''~~kôre~~''.

* ''-hi''<ref>Not to be confused for Irrealis ''-hi'', which suffixes to the ''itá'/iná' '' auxiliaries.</ref><ref>Cognate with Minhast gerundial ''-x-''</ref>: attaches directly to a verb root to derive participles

* ''-hici'': Derives instruments from verb roots, a compound of ''-hi-'' and a submorpheme ''-ci'', possibly derived from ''kaci'' "path"

* ''-rē''<ref>Cognate with Minhast ''redad'' "man/male/person</ref> : Derives occupation

* ''-ssiak'' <ref> Derived from ''siriak'', "appointed time". Cognate with Minhast ''saħrap'' "today"</ref> Derives temporal adverbs from verbs, e.g. ''petissiak'' "time of/for standing", as well as creating adverbial clauses when attached to ''itá '' or ''iná '', e.g.

{{Gloss

|phrase = Ak saraka nitássiak, sissioyenki kai pohráp niná'

| IPA =

| morphemes = ak saraka n-itá-ssiak, si=sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'

| gloss = 1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=heart down fall PST-INTR

| translation = When I saw him, I became crestfallen.

}}

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

The adverbial clause and its matrix may be inverted, e.g.:

|+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes'''

|-

{{Gloss

!

|phrase = Sioyenki kai pohráp ninássiak', siak saraka nitá.

! Prefix

| IPA =

| morphemes = sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'-ssiak' si=ak saraka n-itá.

| gloss = heart down fall PST-INTR CONN=1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=

| translation = I became crestfallen, having seen him.

}}

The Connective ''si='' obligatorily surfaces to link the adverbial clause with its matrix, regardless of the position of the two clauses.

====Derivation ====

Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs.<ref> C.f. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma''). Both are cognates of Nankôre's ''kôre'' "speech". </ref>

{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"

|+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes'''

|-

!

! Prefix

! Sample Noun

! Example

Line 1,864:

Line 2,004:

! Striking

| ya-

| ~~shipa~~ "hand"

| sipa "hand"

| ya-~~shpa~~

| ya-spa

| to punch

| Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles")

Line 1,874:

Line 2,014:

| ha-nake

| to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around

| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''~~shipa~~'' = hand

| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''sipa'' = hand

|-

! Stability

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=== Numbers ===

The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''~~shori~~'' (1) through ''~~shiktash~~'' (11) compounded to ''~~shin~~'' (12). The number twenty-four ''~~hanoshin~~'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-~~shin~~'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''~~hanoshin~~'' literally means "two times twelve". The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''. The number 100 (''~~nenanoshin~~ >> nena ān-o-~~shin~~'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve". The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''. Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''. The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''. If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence.

The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12. The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''siori'' (1) through ''siktas'' (11) compounded to ''sin'' (12). The number twenty-four ''hanosin'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-sin'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''hanosin'' literally means "two times twelve". The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''. The number 100 (''nenanosin >> nena ān-o-sin'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve". The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''. Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''. The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''. If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence.

{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"

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|-

! one

| ~~šôri~~

| siôri

| ~~šoriak~~

| sioriak

|-

! two

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|-

! five

| ~~sišak~~

| sisiak

| catak

|-

! six

| ~~sirišo~~

| sirisio

| ~~siiršok~~

| siirsiok

|-

! seven

| ~~kerišo~~

| kerisio

| ~~kiršok~~

| kirsiok

|-

! eight

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|-

! ten

| ~~kaše~~

| kase /'kaʃɛ/

| kasku

|-

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|-

! thirteen

| ~~šorsin~~

| siorsin

| ~~šorsinok~~

| siorsinok

|-

! fourteen

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==== Connective ''si='' ====

Throughout all the Nahenic languages, connectives are used to bind dependents to their heads. Minhast has ''min'', Neina the cognate ''mɯn'', and Nahónda ''na'', to join two or more noun phrases into one cohesive unit. Minhast has one additional connective, ''wa='', which joins non-verbal adjuncts, which may be a single word or an entire NP and/or adverbial phrase.

Nankóre's connective ''si='' has no known cognates, and unlike its sister languages, ''si='' is not restricted to joining NPs or complex, non-verbal phrases. While the dependency relation in a ''si='' construction may be discernible, often the directionality is ambiguous and thus context must be used to disambiguate, or other morphosyntactic devices, such as the co-occurrence of the inverse marker ''ta' '' in possessive phrases.

<!--

Interestingly, some NP phrases where one would expect a connective to appear are absent. A notable example is ''Hôkun Pe' '', literally "long house", rather than the expected ''hokun si-Pe' '', which is uncommon. The expected form is ''Pe' hokun iná' '', lit. "The house (that) is long".

-->

====Other Particles====

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! Cognates

|-

! ira

! ea ira

| yes

| Upper Minhast ''ēlā''

|-

! ecá', icá'

! ecá' icá'

| no

| Common Minhast ''hatā'

|-

! na

| and

| and so, therefore

| Nahónda ''máma'' "also", Common Minhast ''=mā'' "and then"

|-

! piya

| but

| Neina ''~~hiyo~~''

| Neina ''(hi)yo''

|-

! kusur

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====Word Order====

Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV1V2, where V2 represents the ~~copula~~ ''itá''. Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient. Thus, OSV1V2, SVO1 V2, and other orders are found, both in speech and text. When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb:

Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV1V2, where V2 represents the auxiliary ''itá''. Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient. Thus, OSV1V2, SVO1 V2, and other orders are found, both in speech and text. When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb:

{{Gloss

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}}

Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the ~~copula~~ is restricted to clause-final position.

Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the auxiliary is restricted to clause-final position.

Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument. Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example:

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| translation = It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop.

}}

Constituents can also be backgrounded. An O argument can be moved from its usual preverbal position to an intervening position between the main verb and copula. This form of backgrounding, available only to O arguments, is known as [[Nankôre#Pseudo-Noun_Incorporation|Pseudo-Noun Incorporation]] (PNI). It serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV1V2 word order, with that of a SV1OV2:

*Default SOV1V2 Order

~~{{Gloss~~

~~|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá~~

~~|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno ;taʔɪt'aʔ/~~

~~| morphemes = makse rihat ta=yôre=no ta-itá-ʔ~~

~~| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS~~

~~| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.~~

}}

*Pseudo-Noun Incorporation, SV1OV2 Order

~~{{Gloss~~

~~|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá'~~

~~|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat taʔɪt'aʔ/~~

~~| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ~~

~~| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS~~

~~| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.~~

}}

Pseudo-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun.

As in many SOV languages, modifiers precede their heads:

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====The Verb Phrase====

The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a ~~copula~~ but later on accreted voice, tense, and the ~~secondary~~ ''ta-'' Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the ~~copula~~ and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb.

The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the pleonastic ''ta-'' Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb.

=====Quasi-Noun Incorporation=====

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Quasi-incorporation may eventually evolve into full noun incorporation, as in the case of Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda. Both exhibit full noun incorporation. Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre adds the incorporated noun after the verb root, e.g. Minhast ''Ušnirumpakekaru'' << ''ušn-ruppumak-ek-ar-u'' (hit-face-3S.ABS+1S.ERG-PST.PFCT-TRANS) "I hit him in the face, I face-hit him", Nahónda ''klomenatsoyetolayo''<< ''kloma-natsoye-Ø-t-ola-yo'' (speak-wisdom-3S.PT-1S.AGT-PST-AGT) "I gave him counsel, I wisdom-speak to him. Most languages that exhibit noun incorporation attach the incorporated noun ''before'' the verb root; placement of the incorporated noun after the root is rare among incorporating languages. The process by which Nankôre performs pseudo-incorporation, namely by placing the O-argument ''between'' the primary verb and auxiliary verbs, may explain why Minhast and Nahónda place their incorporated nouns after the verb. Proto-Nahenic may have also placed a quasi-incorporated noun after the primary verb but before the auxiliary verb, an order which the descendant languages preserved.

Quasi-Noun Incorporation serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV1V2 word order, with that of a SV1OV2:

*Default SOV1V2 Order

{{Gloss

|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá

|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno taʔɪt'aʔ/

| morphemes = makse rihat ta=yôre=no ta-itá-ʔ

| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS

| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.

}}

*Quasi-Noun Incorporation, SV1OV2 Order

{{Gloss

|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá'

|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat ʔɪt'aʔ/

| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat ∅-itá-ʔ

| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS

| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.

}}

Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses. '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct. As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun.

====Comparatives and Superlatives====

Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the ~~auxiliary verb~~ ''soyka'' (to be big, i.e. to be more) or ''hatka'' (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb. Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy. In the sentence ''Joe Sara soyka inupe itá'' (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), ''soyka'' precedes the stative verb ''inupe'' (to be strong). Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status. If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ''ta-/tā-/tāh-'' surfaces, as in ''Joe Sara '''ta'''-soyka inupe ta'itá'' (Sara is stronger than Joe). Other examples:

Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the coverb ''soyka'' (to be big, i.e. to be more) or ''hatka'' (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb. Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy. In the sentence ''Joe Sara soyka inupe itá'' (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), ''soyka'' precedes the stative verb ''inupe'' (to be strong). Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status. If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ''ta-/tā-/tāh-'' surfaces, as in ''Joe Sara '''ta'''-soyka inupe ta'itá'' (Sara is stronger than Joe). Other examples:

1) ''Joe Sara soyka soyka ta'itá'' (Joe is taller than Sara; lit. "Joe big bigs Sara").

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==Example texts==

=== The Tower of Babel ===

# Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.

# And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there.

# And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar.

# Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth."

# And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of man had built.

# And the Lord said, "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them.

# Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one another's speech."

# So the Lord dispersed them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city.

# Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth.

# Saska nammanuyyi nan siôri si-kôre maskoy pintá', kor-kôre nihe pinninnináh. Now in.those.days mankind one CONN-speech have AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, word-word resemble AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL

# Iape nanni hóttari pinninnináh, coy siori pintá', Sinar rima pintá', itáp pinninnináh. So horde approach.setting.sun AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL, forest.clearing see AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, Sinar call AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, sit.down AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL

== Table of Abbreviations ==

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[[Category:Languages]]

[[Category:Conlangs]]

[[Category:Artlangs]]

[[Category:A priori]]

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 |name          = Nankôre
 |nativename    = Nankôre
-|pronunciation = /nan.'ko:re/
+|pronunciation = nan.'ko:re
-|region        = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]]
+|setting       = [[wikipedia:Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwest]]
-|states        = Nanhoshka Kôya
+|states        = Nanhoska Kôya /nan'hoʃka 'ko:ja/
-|speakers      = 3,232,430
+|ethnicity     = Nanhoska people
+|speakers      = 2,324
 |date          = 2014
 |familycolor   = panlaffic
 |fam1          = Nahenic
-|fam2          = Nankoric
+|fam2          = Shakhtabaric
+|fam3          = Nankoric
 |nation        = Koya Island
-|iso1          = nk
+|script1       = Latn
-|iso2          = nnk
+|creator       = User:Anyar
-|script        = [[wikipedia:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] (Nankore)
 }}
 <!--
@@ Line 43: / Line 44: @@
 Nankôre, from the words ''nan'' ("man, human") and ''kôre'' ("speech"), is spoken by the Nanhoshka people of Kôya Island.  There are two main dialects, the Konishmak, located in the Northeastern Coastal Mountains, and the Sapshira, encompassing the western and southern parts of the country.  The dialects differ chiefly in pronunciation and differences in certain lexical items, but are otherwise mutually intelligible.
-For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery.  Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the Republic of Minhay, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu.  Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples.  Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry.  Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship.  Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages.  Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs.  In addition, a third language, [[Nahónda]], also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast.  Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family.
+For a little over a century the origins of the language and its people remain clouded in mystery.  Physically, the Nanhoshka people look distinct from the Northwest Pacific Native Americans just 862 kilometers from the eastern shore, but their physical features bear a strikingly close resemblance to the [[Minhast]] people of the Minhastim Karak, who live much further away on the other side of the Pacific Ocean close to Japan and Moshir Ainu.  Because of these physical resemblances, both anthropologists and linguists started exploring a possible relationship between the two peoples.  Recent genetic research uncovered that both the Nanhoshka and Minhast belong to the haplogroup C-M212, indicating a common ancestry.  Linguists had a more difficult task in establishing a relationship.  Finally Benson et. al. compiled an extensive Swadesh list and internally consistent sound correspondences between the two languages.  Most importantly, a set of affixes that were quite conservative were revealed, notably the Causative affix, and a set of fossilized affixes which are prefixed to body parts to derive verbs.  In addition, a third language, [[Nahónda]], also previously classified as a language isolate, was discovered to contain common vocabulary and affixes which it shared with both Nankôre and Minhast.  Therefore, both Nankôre and Minhast, along with Nahónda, are now recognized as belonging to the same language family, which has been named the Nahenic language family.
 ==Typology and Grammatical Overview==
-Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the copula, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc.
+Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the auxiliary, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc.
 Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment.  Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which  employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct–inverse_alignment Direct-Inverse marking] to indicate core argument roles.  The nominal hierarchy is  complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed.  Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context.
-The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre  intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients.  Two different copula paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the  [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the  [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs.
+The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre  intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients.  Two different auxiliary paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the  [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the  [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs.
 ==Phonology==
@@ Line 67: / Line 68: @@
 | ʔ
 |-
-| a,ā, â, á
+| a,ā, â
-| a,ā,â, á
+| a,ā,â
 | a, a:
 |-
@@ Line 95: / Line 96: @@
 | s, s̺, ʃ
 |-
-| š
+| ś, š<ref>Found mostly in older linguistic texts before 1965.  The character has largely fell into disuse afterwards.</ref>
 | sh
 | ʃ
@@ Line 240: / Line 241: @@
 }}
-If the noun is a core argument, then the  [[Nankôre#The_Copula|copula ]]  obligatorily marks for number.  Number is indicated on the copula by the affix ''-n-''.  For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed.  Additionally, if the copula is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below:
+If the noun is a core argument, then the  [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]]  obligatorily marks for number.  Plural number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix ''-n-''.  For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed.  Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below:
 Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient:
@@ Line 281: / Line 282: @@
 | translation = I heard that the dogs played with the girls recently.
 }}
 ==== The Nominal Hierarchy ====
-Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships.  Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient.  Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients.  If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix ''tā-/ta-'', is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb ''itá'''.  Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked.
+Nankôre nouns, at first glance, appears very simple. They are not inflected for case, number, or gender, nor do adpositions indicate their directional or positional relationships.  Number is distinguished only in pronouns. Nevertheless, the nominal system has a complex hierarchy of animacy, which although unmarked, is a semantic feature of the noun and pronoun. This hierarchy of animacy is used to determine the syntactic roles of the core arguments of a clause, namely that of Agent and Patient.  Arguments that are higher in the Animacy Hierarchy are by default considered Agents, whereas lower animacy arguments are considered Patients.  If the syntactic roles of two core arguments are reversed, namely a lower animacy argument acts as an Agent on a higher animacy Patient argument, a special construction known as the Inverse Voice, involving the prefix ''tā-/ta-'', is added to both the first verb in the verb phrase and the auxiliary verb ''itá'''.  Thus, the Inverse Voice is doubly-marked.
 Where a given NP falls within the animacy hierarchy must be memorized in order to use the verbal inverse prefix ''tā-/ta-'' correctly (see section on [[Nankôre#Verbs|Verbs]] for additional details regarding inverse marking).
@@ Line 341: / Line 341: @@
 | colspan="2" style="text-align:center"| Pet (usually carnivorous) >> Non-Pet (usually raised for food)
 | Amphibians
-| Streams, brooks, springs
+| Streams <br/> Brooks <br/> Springs
 | Snow
 | Small Trees
-| Cliffs, jagged outcroppings, tumuli, boulders
+| Cliffs<br/> Jagged outcroppings <br/> Tumuli <br/> Boulders
-| Fabrics, fibers, skins, clothing
+| Fabrics<br/> Fibers <br/> Skins <br/> Clothing
 | Emotions
 |-
@@ Line 355: / Line 355: @@
 | Wind
 | Fruit/Nut Trees
-| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"| Flat land or gently rolling landscape; plains
+| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center"| Flat land <br/> Gently rolling landscape <br/> Plains
 | Wood
 | Thoughts
@@ Line 364: / Line 364: @@
 | Breeze
 | Crustaceans
-| Bushes/Shrubs
+| Bushes<br/>Shrubs
 | Buildings
 | Disease
@@ Line 394: / Line 394: @@
 | Mollusks
 | Muggy weather
-| Mushrooms/Fungi/Mosses/Gelatinous sea invertebrates
+| Mushrooms <br/>Fungi<br/>Mosses<br/>Gelatinous sea invertebrates
 | Stones, rocks, pebbles
 | Death
@@ Line 400: / Line 400: @@
-If two nouns with equal animacy but different number appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun.  However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status.
+If two nouns with equal animacy but different number (obtained either through pronominal referents or context) appear as core arguments, the plural noun is assigned a higher animacy status than the singular noun.  However, if animacy and number are equal, the most recently introduced noun, providing it was introduced as a core argument, is assigned the higher animacy status.
 In situations were two nouns have equal animacy ''and'' equal number, the rules for assigning the position each core argument in the hierarchy is as follows:
@@ Line 413: / Line 413: @@
 * -no: Diminutive suffix, e.g. ''kuras'' (woman), ''kurasno'' (girl)
 * -CV(C) reduplication: Augmentive, e.g. ''kurasras'' (big woman); analogous to Minhast augmentation
-* -ra-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: nahón -> na-ra-hón-ho (big/fat, ugly man); very similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog"
+* -rV-CV(C) infixation + reduplication: Augmentive-Deprecative: ''nahón'' -> ''nannarohono'', from ''na~na~ro-hón-ho'' (big/fat ugly man); similar to Minhast ''-ra-'' infixation and reduplication of first syllable, e.g. Minhast ''kas~ka~ra-slub'' "large dog, hunting hound" < ''kaslub'' "dog"
 ==== Adjectival Suffixes ====
-Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives.  They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies.  These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes.  Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''-kerek'' > ''karyak itá'' "to be red".  Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever").  Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three.  The  suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible.  Nevertheless it appears that scope determines the ordering of the suffixes: suffixes with wider scope tend to appear towards the end e.g. "''Kenenkor-pita-shune-une itá''" (bed plush-red-soft-very 3S.COP ) "It is a very soft, red and plush bed."
+Nankôre lacks a separate word class for adjectives.  They may be expressed as attributive verbs, e.g. ''Aryak neshkak itá'', "Aryak is smart", ''Kanko shoykar sip'itá''', "Kanko (an indigenous vegetable) makes good" (for your health), or a suffix may be attached to the noun it modifies.  These suffixes are called adjectival suffixes.  Some of these suffixes are etymologically derived from an attributive verb, e.g. ''karyak itá'' > ''-kerek'' >, as in ''Kurasnokerek '' "the girl is red" (i.e. the girl is blushing).  Others appear to be derived from separate roots, c.f. "''Aryak-arku''", ("clever Aryak") vs ''"Aryak neshkak itá"'' ("Aryak is clever").  Theoretically an unlimited number of suffixes may be appended to the noun, but in practice the number of adjectival suffixes seldom exceeds three.  The  suffixes may appear in any order, so long as the meaning is comprehensible.  Scope ordering determines the position of the suffixes relative to each other, with those of wider scope appearing towards the end, as in the following example:
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Kenenkorpitasnune iná'.
+| IPA = /kɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ/
+| morphemes = kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná
+| gloss = bed-plush-red-soft-very COP
+| translation = It is a very soft, red and plush bed.
+}}
 While the number of adjectival suffixes are considerable, they remain for the most part a closed class.  Moreover, with a few exceptions, each adjectival suffix may be expressed by a corresponding stative verb.
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Hosiari sikenenkorpitasnune iná torocak ta'itāhi.
+| IPA = /ho'ʃari sɪkɛnɛnkorpɪtaʃ'nunɛ ɪ'naʔ torot͡ʃak taʔɪt'a:hi/
+| morphemes = hosiari si-kenenkor-pita-snu-ne iná ta-horoci=ak ta-itá'-hi
+| gloss = PROX.DEM CONN-bed-plush-red-soft-very COP INV-sleep=1S+3S INV-AUX-CAUS
+| translation = This very soft, red and plush bed makes me sleep (well).
+}}
 There are seven observed categories of adjectival suffixes:
@@ Line 430: / Line 447: @@
 # Other Attributes
-===Deictics===
+===Demonstratives and Deictics===
 ===== Spatial =====
@@ Line 438: / Line 455: @@
 |-
 ! '''Proximal '''
-| [independent particle]
+| hosiairi <br/> /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/
-| =skoro || this one near me; now || nan=iskoro "this man here"; oriyat=hepi "today"
+| =skoro
 |
+* this one near me
+* now
+|
+*  ''hosiari sinán <br/>nan=iskoro'' "this man here"
+* ''oriyat=hepi'' "today"
+|
+* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-nussar-''
+* Nahónda: ''nótsalo''
 |-
 ! '''Medio-Proximal'''
-| [independent particle]
+| yaiyairi
-| =hori, =ori || that one by you; just awhile ago|| nan=hori "that man next to you"
+| =hori <br/> =ori
 |
+* that one by you
+* just awhile ago
+|
+* ''yaiyairi sinán<br/> nan=hori'' "that man next to you"
+|
+* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-''
+* Nahónda: ''iyáyalo''
 |-
 ! '''Distal'''
-| [independent particle]
+| paipairi
-| =nko, =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man""
+| =nko <br/> =kekori
 |
+* yonder, that one near him/her/them
+* yesterday, a few days ago
+|
+*''paipairi sinán'' <br/>''nan=inko'' "yonder man"
+|
+* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ppeyyar-''
+* Nahónda: ''pʼáyalo
 |-
 ! '''Invisible'''
-| [independent particle]
+| rosiairi <br/> /ɾoʃ'jaɪɾi/
-| =nanak || that one beyond the horizon, or occluded by a distant object|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"
+|
+=nanak
 |
+* that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object
+|
+* ''rosiairi sinán <br/> nan=nanak'' "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side <br/> of the mountain)"
+|
+* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ruššar-''
 |}
@@ Line 469: / Line 514: @@
 | Distal || =nko || =kekori || yonder, that one near him/her/them; yesterday, a few days ago|| nan=inko "yonder man"; oriyat=kekori "yesterday", ono=kekori "a few days ago"
 |-
-| Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man (e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago"
+| Invisible || =nanak || =sinkar || a long time ago|| nan=nanak "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side of the mountain)"; oriyat=sinkar "a long time ago"
 |}
 -->
 ===== Temporal =====
 The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. ''Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' '', "A year ago, Anut flew to America".  In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, ''yorai'', cannot appear after the initial clause.  Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in ''Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'''.
 <!--
-, and in the process replace the copula's tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back".  Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy."
+, and in the process replace the auxiliary's tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back".  Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy."
 -->
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
@@ Line 538: / Line 584: @@
 |-
 ! Many
-| etco
+| eco
-| etcisi=<br/> etci=<br/>etc=
+| ecisi=<br/> eci=<br/>ec=
 |-
 ! Both
@@ Line 551: / Line 597: @@
 ! Few
 | cato
-| catci=<br/>catc=
+| caci=<br/>cac=
 |-
 ! Another/Other
@@ Line 611: / Line 657: @@
 {{Gloss
-|phrase =Ka tahone, ra' taspitá?
+|phrase =Kā tahône, ra' tasip'itá'?
-| IPA = ka ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃpɪ'ta
+| IPA = ka: ta'ɦo:nɛ ɾaʔ taʃɪpʔ'ɪta
-| morphemes = Ka ta=honé, ra'  ta-sp-Ø-itá-ʔ
+| morphemes = kā ta=hone, ra'  ta-sip-Ø-itá-ʔ
 | gloss = 2S INV.SG=cry who INV-CAUS-HS-COP-LS
 | translation = Who is making you cry?
 }}
-The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''ani'', implies incredulity:
+The following two sentences are polarity questions, with no difference in meaning. The third sentence, containing both polarity markers ''=yo'' and sentence-final particle ''aní'', implies incredulity:
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 654: / Line 700: @@
 }}
-Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the copula. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the copula:
+Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the auxiliary. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the auxiliary:
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 686: / Line 732: @@
 Among the Interrogative pronouns, ''ra' '' ranks the highest in animacy;  nevertheless, Interrogative pronouns are lower than non-Interrogative nouns in the animacy hierarchy.
-''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra' '', where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''' for the rest.
+''Yôri-'' is always prefixed to the noun it modifies and can never appear as an independent word. It can be prefixed to ''pôh'' and ''ra' '', i.e. ''yôripoh'' and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> where it takes the meaning "which one", ''yôripoh'' for Noun Classes II and III, the sentient members of Class I, and ''yôra''<nowiki>'</nowiki> for the rest.
+<!--
+=== Demonstratives ===
+Attributive
-=== Pronouns ===
-The first group of pronouns are used in intransitive clauses.  They consist of both independent and cliticized forms.  The animacy of each pronoun is arranged in the following hierarchy:
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
+!
+!  Pronominal !! Attributive<ref>The attributive forms derive from the pronominal + ''si-'' connective.  Note that the connective cliticizes to the demonstrative, not the noun head as expected.</ref> !! Adverbial <ref>The adverbial ''-e'' suffix derives from a putative ''*e='' (c.f. Minhast ''eyha'' "there is/are") that cliticized to the pronominal form.</ref> !! Minhast Cognates
 |-
-! Pronominal hierarchy
+! Proximal
+|| hāpe || hapsi || hāpe, hape || sappu
+|-
+! Medioproximal
+|| nas || napsi || nāse, nase || naš
 |-
-| style="text-align:center"|1st >> 2nd >> 3rd
+! Distal
+|| yas || yapsi ||yāse, yase || wašia
+|-
+! Invisible
+|| ucce, ucca || ucci || ucce  || suxta <!-- from *husta, c.f. Minhast suxta "thither", x(Minhast) vs h/0(Nan.), št(Min.) vs cc(Nan.)
 |}
-Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons.  However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level.
+-->
+=== Pronouns ===
+Nankôre pronouns distinguish animacy, number, and transitivity.  The transitive forms are portmanteaus, which in combination with the presence or absence of the verb's inverse marker, encodes both the agent and patient.
-The following table lists the forms of the simple pronouns:
+Animacy in Nankôre is arranged in the following hierarchy:
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
-|+ '''Intransitive Pronouns'''
-|-
-!  rowspan ="2"| Person
-!  colspan="2"|Singular
-!  colspan="3"  | Plural
 |-
-! Independent
+! Pronominal hierarchy
-! Clitic
+|-
-! Long Form
+| style="text-align:center"|1st > 2nd > 3rd > 4th
-! Short Form
-! Clitic
-|-
-! 1
-| style="text-align:center"| ak
-| =ák
-| akôs
-| aóy<br/>yoy
-| =yoy
-|-
-! 2
-| style="text-align:center"| kā<br/> ka
-| =ká
-| kakôs
-| koy
-| =koy
-|-
-! 3
-| style="text-align:center"| tā <br/> ta
-| =tá
-| takôs
-| toy
-| =toy
-|-
 |}
+Plurality generally does not affect the animacy level across persons.  However, if two 3rd person arguments have the same animacy and one of the arguments is plural, then the plural argument is assigned a higher animacy level.
-If used as a core argument, the singular forms and the plural short forms may appear just before the clause-final copula ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g.  ''Nitoriká 'itá!''.  They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother).
+The paradigm for the transitive pronouns are as follows:
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
 |+ '''Transitive Portmanteau Pronouns'''
 |-
-! colspan="4"| Singular
+! colspan="5"| Singular
-! colspan="4"| Plural
+! colspan="6"| Plural
 |-
 !
-! 1S
+! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 4S !! 1P.INC || 1P.EXCL !! 2P !! 3P || 4P
-! 2S
-! 3S
-! 1P
-! 2P
-! 3P
 |-
 ! 1S
-|
+|  -- || ekká' || ekenko || enkár || -- || -- || kamme || enka ||nerá
---
-| yakká'
-| kattá'
-|
---
-| yakkóy
-| nattóy
 |-
 ! 2S
-| akká'
+| ekká' <br/> kā <br/> ka || --|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || korí || kanná || kanné || -- || kanenko || kâre
-|
---
-| kattí
-| yakkós
-|
---
-| natós
 |-
 ! 3S
-| yettá'
+| ekenko|| kanko <br/> kā <br/> ka || -- || enkará || enko || nenko || kanenko || -- || kankór
-| kattí
-| kettá'
-| yanós
-|
-| tarós
 |-
-! colspan="8"| Plural x Plural
+! 4S
+| enkár || korí || enkará || -- ||  ánkare || nénkare || kánnare || eranka || --
 |-
-! colspan="4"| 1P
+! colspan="11"| Plural x Plural
-|
+|-
---
+! colspan="5"| 1P.INCL
-| okóy<br/> koy
+| -- || -- || ánkame || ananka || ánnahi
-| otóy<br/>toy
 |-
-! colspan="4"|  2P
+! colspan="5"| 1P.EXCL
-| kakkóy
+| -- || -- || nékkame || nenka || énnahi
-|
+|-
---
+! colspan="5"|  2P
-| koy
+| ánkame || nékkame || 	-- || nekákkame || nákkame
+|-
+! colspan="5"|  3P
+||ananka || nenka || nekákkame || -- || nékkahi
 |-
-! colspan="4"|  3P
+! colspan="5"|  4P
-| okkóy<br/> toy '''(!)'''
+|| ánnahi || énnahi|| nákkame || nékkahi || --
-| ottóy<br/>toy
-| toy
 |-
 |}
+Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role.  However, an inverse affix ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' is prefixed to the primary verb,  as well as a redundant ''ta-'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role.
-As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, nor are case clitics attached to them to indicate case relations.  Transitive verbs take two NPs as core arguments. The case relations of the two arguments are determined by the position of the noun in the animacy hierarchy; the core argument that is higher in the animacy hierarchy is assigned the Agent role, and the other argument is assigned the Patient role.  However, an inverse affix ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' is prefixed to the primary verb,  as well as a redundant ''ta-'' affix that is added to the auxiliary to alter the argument structure and promote the lower-animacy argument to Agent role.
+The intransitive forms consist of both independent and cliticized forms, as illustrated in the following table:
+{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
+|+ '''Intransitive Pronouns'''
+|-
+!  rowspan ="2"| Person
+!  colspan="2" | Singular
+!  colspan="2" | Plural
+|-
+! Independent !! Clitic !! Long Form !! Clitic
+|-
+! 1
+| style="text-align:center"| eyak  || =yak <br/> =ak || aná || =na
+|-
+! 2
+| style="text-align:center"| eká   || =ka  || kamme || =kamme
+|-
+! 3
+| style="text-align:center"| enko  || =ko <br/>=na || enká || =enká <br/> =nka <br/> =ka
+|-
+! 4
+| style="text-align:center"| erá   || =ra || nami || =nami
+|}
-[OBSOLETE] Unlike the Intransitive forms, the portmanteau Transitive forms come before the main verb, not the auxiliary verb, e.g. ''Akostos karok tā'itá' '' , "I ate it".  Sometimes the portmanteau is cliticized to the main verb, as in  ''Akostos=karok tā'itá' ''.  If the Inverse marker appears simultaneously with the Transitive portmanteau pronoun, the preverbal Inverse marker ''tā=/tāh=/ta=/t='' cliticizes to the portmanteau pronoun.  Since the Inverse voice is double-marked, the Inverse form of the auxiliary ''itấ' '' also is used, as in the improbable sentence, ''Takostos karok tahortā'itá'/Takostoskarok tahortā'itá' '', from ''Tā-akostos-karok tahortā'itá' '', "He/she/it ate me".
+If used as a core argument, the intransitive singular forms and the plural '''short''' forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g.  ''Nitoriká 'itá!''.  They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother).
-Obliques cannot be inserted into the verb complex.  If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''.  Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique.  To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence.
+As earlier stated, nouns in Nankôre are not inflected, and the same is true for pronouns.  Moreover, oblique pronominal arguments cannot be inserted into the verb phrase, but instead must appear before it.  If oblique arguments appear outside their clause, particularly in topic-comment structures, they must be joined to it with the connective clitic ''si=''.  Context alone determines the semantic role of the oblique.  To illustrate, the sentence ''Maska si=ohipna koykare ekán itá'' (anthill=CONN twig boy twist COP.PST), i.e. "The boy inserted the twig into the anthill", the oblique noun ''maska'' (anthill is marked with the clitic ''si='' to join it to the rest of the sentence.
 ===Verbs===
-The verb phrase in Nankôre require at a minimum an initial verb, plus the copula.  An initial verb may be the main verb itself, or an auxiliary.  A sort of division of labor exists between these components components; a certain set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another to another.
+The verb phrase in Nankôre requires at a minimum an initial verb, plus one of the clause-final auxiliaries, '' 'itá' '' for transitive clauses or intransitive clauses where the subject's theta-role is that of Agent, and '' 'iná'' ' for all other intransitive clauses.  A sort of division of labor exists between these components; one set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another set to the other component.
+The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb.  All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb:
-The following set of markers cliticize to the first verb of the VP, which may be either the main verb, or a coverb.  All preverbal clitics attach to the the initial verb.
-*Initial Verb
 #Inverse
 #Aspect
-However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless if it is the initial verb of the VP or not:
+However, a set of bound morphemes, occurring as suffixes, attach exclusively to the main verb, regardless of whether the verb occurs initial position in the verb phrase or not:
-*Main Verb
 #Evidentials
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+! Evidentials !! Meaning !! Example
+|-
+| -kor  || hearsay || Example
+|-
+| Example || Example || Example
+|-
+| Example || Example || Example
+|}
-Finally, the copula hosts the following set of morphemes, which are not clitics but actual affixes:
+Modal verbs, when they occur, follow the main verb, displaying leftward scope-ordering, e.g. ''Kôreak képorih iná'!'' "I am trying to speak!".
+Finally, the auxiliary '' 'iná'/'itá' '' hosts the following set of affixes:
-*Copula
 #Inverse
 #Tense
@@ Line 841: / Line 880: @@
 ====The Verb Phrase Structure ====
-The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the copula marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''.
+The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the auxiliary marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''.
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 851: / Line 890: @@
 }}
-[[File:Nankore_VP_-_Version_2.png|200px|thumb|right|Diagram of the Nankôre Verb Phrase]]
+The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order.  The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary.  Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb.  If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb.  However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb.  Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN).
+Although Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language, templatic representations like those of its polysynthetic cousins
+Minhast and Nahónda, provide a useful visual tool to demonstrate the Nankôre verb phrase structure:
+{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
+|+ '''Verb Conjugation Table'''
+|-
+! Position !! Type !! Subtype !! Realization
+|-
+! -3
+| Inverse Marker 1
+| style="background-color:black"|
+| ta=
+|-
+! rowspan="3"| -2
+| rowspan="3"| Coverbs
+|-
+| Directionals/Positionals ||
+|-
+| Modals ||
+|-
+! 1
+| Aspect
+| rowspan="3" style="background-color:black"|x
+| Examplexxx
+|-
+! 0
+| Primary Verb
+|
+|-
+! +1
+| Quasi-Incorporated Noun
+| Examples
+|-
+! +2
+| rowspan="4"| Auxiliary
+| Inverse Marker 2
+| ta-
+|-
+! +3
+| Inchoative
+|-
+! +4
+| Causative
+|
+|-
+! +5
+| Irrealis
+|
+|}
-The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order.  The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Copula.  Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb.  If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb.  However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb.  Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN).
+====Coverbs====
+[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coverb Coverbs] in Nankôre formal grammar are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments.  Although several types of coverbs exist, the Directionals-Positionals coverbs are the most prominent.  Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]].  In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs".  The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede all other modal verbs, which are scope-ordered.
-====Coverbs====
-Coverbs are auxiliary verbs that serve to provide additional syntactic information to the main verb itself, or to the core arguments.  There are two classes of coverbs, Directionals-Positionals coverbs, and Modals.  Directional and positional coverbs serve as a way of indicating case relations of the core arguments, somewhat like Applicatives in other languages, such as those of its distant cousin [[Minhast]].  In fact the older linguistic literature often refers to these coverbs as "Applicative Verbs".  The Directionals-Positionals coverbs always precede the Modals.
 =====Directional-Positional Coverbs=====
 Directional and positional coverbs have both a long and short form.  The long form, also called the Independent Form, may serve as a bona fide standalone verb, or it may serve as a coverb provided that no clitics attach to it.  Thus the coverb ''sanha'', in its long form, means "to go towards, to approach" as an independent verb, but its short form, ''san'', always indicates motion towards an entity; this sort of syntactic relation is usually handled by the Allative case in languages which indicate case marking on the noun.  Clitics that otherwise attach to the main verb, such as the Inverse marker and and aspect markers, move to and attach to the first occurring coverb of the VP.  Clitics attach only to the short form.  Additionally, morphophonemic alternations may take place when the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizes to the coverb, such as in the Subessive ''cor-''.
@@ Line 968: / Line 1,051: @@
 |}
-=====Modals=====
+====Aspect====
+The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word.  If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb.  Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table:
-Modal verbs follow the Directional-Positional coverbs.  Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc.
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
 |-
-! !! Modal!!  Meaning
+! !! Aspect  Marker!!  Meaning
 |-
-! style=""| Potential
+! style=""| Perfect
-| makan||
+| -Ø||
 |-
-! style=""| Necessitive
+! style=""| Semelfactive
-| nehái||
+| =no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit
-|-
-! style=""| Desiderative
-| tasmi||
-|-
-! style=""| Inceptive-Inchoative
-| yari||
-|-
-! style=""| Resumptive
-| kenoy||
-|-
-|}
-====Aspect====
-The verb, in contrast to the copula, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word.  If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb.  Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table:
-{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
-|-
-! !! Aspect  Marker!!  Meaning
-|-
-! style=""| Perfect
-| -Ø||
-|-
-! style=""| Semelfactive
-| =no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit
 |-
 ! style=""| Simple Imperfect
@@ Line 1,054: / Line 1,111: @@
 |-
 ! style=""| Emphatic-Factual
-| -mas
+| -mas <br/> -masne
 |-
 ! style=""| Hearsay
@@ Line 1,072: / Line 1,129: @@
 |}
-====The Copula ====
+=====Modals=====
-In terms of morphological complexity, the copula hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation.
+Modal verbs follow the main verb.  Modals include a wide range of expressions, such as ability, potentiality, similitude, desire, inclination, etc.
-The copula serves two purposes:
+{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
-* To links noun phrases to their predicates:
+|-
+! !! Modal!!  Meaning !! Nahenic Cognates
-{{Gloss
+|-
-|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi?
+! style=""| Potential
-| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/
+| makán|| be able to, can
+|
+|-
+! style=""| Necessitive
+| nehái|| need to
+|
+|-
+! style=""| Desiderative
+| tasmi|| want to
+|
+|-
+! style=""| Conative
+| si <br/> s=|| to try to, attempt
+| Cognate with Minhast ''sunep-'' (to push)
+|-
+! style=""| Inceptive
+| yári|| begin to
+|
+|-
+! style=""| Resumptive
+| kenóy|| again
+|
+|-
+|}
+Examples of usage of the modal verbs follow:
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Ekenko tuas sitá', yankór<ref>From reconstructed P-Nahenic *''wa=man=kor'' (CONN=SEQ=and.yet).</ref> seskoro sioykar ináka.
+| IPA = Ekenko tuaʃ 'ʃi'taʔ yan'koɾ 'ʃɛʃkoɾo 'ʃoɪkaɾ ɪ'naka
+| morphemes = ekenko tuas s-itá' yankór se=skoro sioykar iná-ka.
+| gloss = 1S.3S wash.out CON-AUX.TRN however reed=DEM.PROX good be-NEG.
+| translation = I'm trying to wash (the stain) out, but this reed brush isn't good.
+}}
+====The Auxiliary ====
+In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation.
+The auxiliary serves two purposes:
+* To links noun phrases to their predicates:
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Nan konkekma yoriká ináhi?
+| IPA = /nan kon'kekma 'yo:riká ɪn'ahi/
 | morphemes = nan konkekma, yôri-ká ∅-iná-ʔ-hi
 | gloss = human snake which-2S DIR-PRS.COP.STAT-S-IRR
@@ Line 1,105: / Line 1,206: @@
 }}
-The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient.  The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the copula ''itá''':
+The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient.  The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the auxiliary ''itá''':
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 1,115: / Line 1,216: @@
 }}
-Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''.  For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality.  Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense copula is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''t<u>ā</u>'inta'''.  The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead.  This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward.
+Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''.  For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality.  Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense auxiliary is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''t<u>ā</u>'inta'''.  The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead.  This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward.
 The Inchoative consists of a the prefix ''yis-'', which frequently occurs as a circumfix, ''y''- + ''-s-'', for certain conjugations.  The affix causes the Inverse affix ''ta(h)-'' to palatize; the ''-s-'' segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing ''-n-'' affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation.  Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the ''-s-'' segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization.  When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect.  The ''-s-'' component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix ''-saxt-''.
@@ Line 1,121: / Line 1,222: @@
 The Causative is marked with the affixes ''sip-'' or ''-sp-'', which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast ''-šp-'' and Nahónda ''-ps-''.  As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a ''si-'' marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the ''si-'' connective.  The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the ''si-'' connective for topicalization.
-The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the copula.  It is obligatory for all Future tenses.  It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established.  An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?"   The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''.
+The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the auxiliary.  It is obligatory for all Future tenses.  It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established.  An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?"   The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''.
 =====Transitive Paradigm =====
@@ Line 1,144: / Line 1,245: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | itán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | itá'ita'
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá' (pis'itá')
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itán  (pis'itán)
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sip'itá'ita  (pis'itá'ita')
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita'
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita'
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá' (pisnitá')
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitán (pisnitán)
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita' (pisnitá'ita')
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,175: / Line 1,276: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’itá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | castán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | taspitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Hodiernal Past ‡
@@ Line 1,208: / Line 1,309: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'itá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hô'intá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yôsintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hôsipnintá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,239: / Line 1,340: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'itá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | costán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | costá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahô'intá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | cosnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhópsintá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Past
@@ Line 1,272: / Line 1,373: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | sipnintá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,303: / Line 1,404: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Distal Past
@@ Line 1,336: / Line 1,437: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hispitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,367: / Line 1,468: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | castán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | castá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasiphitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casintan
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casinta'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsiphintá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Past
@@ Line 1,400: / Line 1,501: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptan
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipta'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,431: / Line 1,532: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | caspitá
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsintá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casipnitá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Medio-Proximal Future
@@ Line 1,464: / Line 1,565: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisiptahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | nisipnitahá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,495: / Line 1,596: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’nitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tantahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tantahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tasipnitahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tānintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáhan
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | casnintáha'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāsipnintahá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="11" style="width:64.01pt; " | Immediate Future
@@ Line 1,528: / Line 1,629: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yistahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisiptahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yisnitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | hispintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | hisipnitahá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,559: / Line 1,660: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | castáh
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisipitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tahisiptahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | cahsintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhispintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhisipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāhisipnitahá'ita
 |-
 !  rowspan="12" style="width:64.01pt; " | Distal Future
@@ Line 1,592: / Line 1,693: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsitahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisiptahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | yipsiptahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | pisipnitahá'ita
 |-
 |  colspan="2" rowspan="3"  style="width:64.01pt; background-color:black " |
@@ Line 1,623: / Line 1,724: @@
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | SG
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | ta’pitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | taptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | taptahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitáh
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | capsitaháh
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tapsiptahá'ita
 |-
 !  style="width:64.01pt; " | PL
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tāpintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | capsintahá'ita
 |  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitáh
-|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitahán
+|  style="width:64.01pt; " | tápsipnitahá'ita
 |}
@@ Line 1,642: / Line 1,743: @@
 =====Intransitive-Active Paradigm =====
-The paradigm for the copula with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity.  The intransitive paradigm is used for stative verbs, NP arguments that are semantic Patients, and also for NP arguments whose thematic roles are clearly that of Agents.
+The paradigm for the ''itá'' auxiliary with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity.  As in the transitive paradigm, an Agent is required as a core argument, but unlike the transitive paradigm, the ''ta-'' inverse marker never appears in the Intransitive-Active paradigm.
+This use of the ''itá'' auxiliary demonstrates an underlying split intransitive morphosyntactic alignment, specifically of the Split-S subtype: only verbs that indicate agency can license the ''itá'' auxiliary, whilst non-volitional verbs are restricted to the ''iná'' auxiliary.
 <!--
-There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the copula indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient].  The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning.
+There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the auxiliary indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient].  The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning.
 -->
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
@@ Line 1,742: / Line 1,844: @@
 |}
 ===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm=====
-The intransitive paradigm of the copula is listed in the table below:
+Intransitive verb structures involve pairing a semantically stative or non-agentive verb with the auiliary ''iná''', a root cognate with the Minhast intransitive verbal ending ''-an''.
+The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below:
 {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
 !  rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense
@@ Line 1,840: / Line 1,943: @@
 |}
-====Derivation ====
+===== Nominalization =====
+Nankôre has a rich set of clitics and suffixes that serve as nominalizers.  They are, in order of frequency:
+* ''-pe'': Clausal relativizer, cognate with Minhast ''=naft''
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Nan issiah pinninnináh'''pe''' pirút taporé ta'itá'.
+| IPA =
+| morphemes = nan issiah pinninnináh-pe pirút ta-poré ta-'itá'
+| gloss = man come COP.FUT-NMLZ sasquatch INV-vanquish INV-COP
+| translation = The (next) man who comes here shall defeat the Sasquatch.
+}}
-Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs.  These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda;  similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs, e.g. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma'', note that Minhast /k/ maps to Nahónda /t/); ''kirim'' is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre ''kôre''.
+* ''-hi''<ref>Not to be confused for Irrealis ''-hi'', which suffixes to the ''itá'/iná' '' auxiliaries.</ref><ref>Cognate with Minhast gerundial ''-x-''</ref>: attaches directly to a verb root to derive participles
+* ''-hici'': Derives instruments from verb roots, a compound of ''-hi-'' and a submorpheme ''-ci'', possibly derived from ''kaci'' "path"
+* ''-rē''<ref>Cognate with Minhast ''redad'' "man/male/person</ref> : Derives occupation
+* ''-ssiak'' <ref> Derived from ''siriak'', "appointed time". Cognate with Minhast ''saħrap'' "today"</ref> Derives temporal adverbs from verbs, e.g. ''petissiak'' "time of/for standing", as well as creating adverbial clauses when attached to ''itá '' or ''iná '', e.g.
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Ak saraka nitássiak, sissioyenki kai pohráp niná'
+| IPA =
+| morphemes = ak saraka n-itá-ssiak, si=sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'
+| gloss = 1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=heart down fall PST-INTR
+| translation = When I saw him, I became crestfallen.
+}}
-{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
+The adverbial clause and its matrix may be inverted, e.g.:
-|+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes'''
-|-
+{{Gloss
-!
+|phrase = Sioyenki kai pohráp ninássiak', siak saraka nitá.
-! Prefix
+| IPA =
+| morphemes = sioyenki kai pohráp n-iná'-ssiak' si=ak saraka n-itá.
+| gloss = heart down fall PST-INTR CONN=1S see PST-AUX.TRN CONN=
+| translation = I became crestfallen, having seen him.
+}}
+The Connective ''si='' obligatorily surfaces to link the adverbial clause with its matrix, regardless of the position of the two clauses.
+====Derivation ====
+Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs.  These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda;  similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs.<ref> C.f. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma'').  Both are cognates of Nankôre's ''kôre'' "speech". </ref>  <!--Note that Minhast /k/ maps to Nahónda /t/). ''kirim'' is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre ''kôre''. -->
+{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
+|+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes'''
+|-
+!
+! Prefix
 ! Sample Noun
 ! Example
@@ Line 1,864: / Line 2,004: @@
 ! Striking
 | ya-
-| shipa "hand"
+| sipa "hand"
-| ya-shpa
+| ya-spa
 | to punch
 | Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles")
@@ Line 1,874: / Line 2,014: @@
 | ha-nake
 | to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around
-| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''shipa'' = hand
+| Nahónda: ''ho-shishpa'' "to give" ''shishp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''sipa'' = hand
 |-
 ! Stability
@@ Line 1,895: / Line 2,035: @@
 === Numbers ===
-The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12.  The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''shori'' (1) through ''shiktash'' (11) compounded to ''shin'' (12).  The number twenty-four ''hanoshin'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-shin'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''hanoshin'' literally means "two times twelve".  The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''.  The number 100 (''nenanoshin >> nena ān-o-shin'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve".  The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''.  Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''.  The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''.  If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence.
+The Nankôre number system is dozenal, i.e. base-12.  The numbers thirteen through twenty-three are modified compounds consisting of the unit numbers ''siori'' (1) through ''siktas'' (11) compounded to ''sin'' (12).  The number twenty-four ''hanosin'' can be analyzed as ''han-o-sin'', where the affix ''-o-'' signifies "multiplied by", so ''hanosin'' literally means "two times twelve".  The multiplicative pattern continues until the number 144, which is called ''nakpa''.  The number 100 (''nenanosin >> nena ān-o-sin'') is literally "four (and) eight times twelve".  The ordinals for the numbers 1-7 are the cardinal numbers suffixed by ''-ak'' or ''-ok''.  Numbers 8-11 are the cardinal numbers suffixed with the ending ''-u''.  The ordinal for the number 12 is again suffixed with ''-ok'', and the higher numbers with ''-nok''.  If the ''-nok'' affix is preceded by a consonant followed by ''-i-'', the ''-i-'' may be dropped, provided that this does not form the impermissible consonant cluster -CCC- sequence.
 {|class="bluetable lightbluebg"
@@ Line 1,903: / Line 2,043: @@
 |-
 !  one
-|  šôri
+|  siôri
-|  šoriak
+|  sioriak
 |-
 !  two
@@ Line 1,919: / Line 2,059: @@
 |-
 !   five
-|  sišak
+|  sisiak
 |  catak
 |-
 !   six
-|  sirišo
+|  sirisio
-|  siiršok
+|  siirsiok
 |-
 !   seven
-|  kerišo
+|  kerisio
-|  kiršok
+|  kirsiok
 |-
 !   eight
@@ Line 1,939: / Line 2,079: @@
 |-
 !   ten
-|  kaše
+|  kase	 /'kaʃɛ/
 |  kasku
 |-
@@ Line 1,951: / Line 2,091: @@
 |-
 !  thirteen
-|  šorsin
+|  siorsin
-|  šorsinok
+|  siorsinok
 |-
 !   fourteen
@@ Line 2,014: / Line 2,154: @@
 ==== Connective ''si='' ====
+Throughout all the Nahenic languages, connectives are used to bind dependents to their heads.  Minhast has ''min'', Neina the cognate ''mɯn'', and Nahónda ''na'', to join two or more noun phrases into one cohesive unit.  Minhast has one additional connective, ''wa='', which joins non-verbal adjuncts, which may be a single word or an entire NP and/or adverbial phrase.
+Nankóre's connective ''si='' has no known cognates, and unlike its sister languages, ''si='' is not restricted to joining NPs or complex, non-verbal phrases.  While the dependency relation in a ''si='' construction may be discernible, often the directionality is ambiguous and thus context must be used to disambiguate, or other morphosyntactic devices, such as the co-occurrence of the inverse marker ''ta' '' in possessive phrases.
+<!--
+Interestingly, some NP phrases where one would expect a connective to appear are absent.  A notable example is ''Hôkun Pe' '', literally "long house", rather than the expected ''hokun si-Pe' '', which is uncommon.  The expected form is ''Pe' hokun iná' '', lit. "The house (that) is long".
+-->
 ====Other Particles====
@@ Line 2,022: / Line 2,169: @@
 ! Cognates
 |-
-! ira
+! ea<br/>ira
 | yes
 | Upper Minhast ''ēlā''
 |-
-! ecá', icá'
+! ecá'<br/> icá'
 | no
 | Common Minhast ''hatā'
 |-
 ! na
-| and
+| and <br/> so, therefore
 | Nahónda ''máma'' "also", Common Minhast ''=mā'' "and then"
 |-
 ! piya
 | but
-| Neina ''hiyo''
+| Neina ''(hi)yo''
 |-
 ! kusur
@@ Line 2,055: / Line 2,202: @@
 ====Word Order====
-Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, where V<sub>2</sub> represents the copula ''itá''.  Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient.  Thus, OSV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, SVO<sub>1</sub> V<sub>2</sub>, and other orders are found, both in speech and text.  When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb:
+Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, where V<sub>2</sub> represents the auxiliary ''itá''.  Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient.  Thus, OSV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, SVO<sub>1</sub> V<sub>2</sub>, and other orders are found, both in speech and text.  When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb:
 {{Gloss
@@ Line 2,065: / Line 2,212: @@
 }}
-Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the copula is restricted to clause-final position.
+Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the auxiliary is restricted to clause-final position.
 Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument.  Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example:
@@ Line 2,076: / Line 2,223: @@
 | translation = It was the mouse the falcon seized in one fell swoop.
 }}
-Constituents can also be backgrounded.  An O argument can be moved from its usual preverbal position to an intervening position between the main verb and copula.  This form of backgrounding, available only to O arguments, is known as [[Nankôre#Pseudo-Noun_Incorporation|Pseudo-Noun Incorporation]] (PNI).  It serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb.  The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> word order, with that of a SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>:
-*Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order
-{{Gloss
-|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá
-|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno ;taʔɪt'aʔ/
-| morphemes = makse rihat ta=yôre=no  ta-itá-ʔ
-| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA  INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS
-| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.
-}}
-*Pseudo-Noun Incorporation,  SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub> Order
-{{Gloss
-|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá'
-|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat taʔɪt'aʔ/
-| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat  ∅-itá-ʔ
-| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS
-| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.
-}}
-Pseudo-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses.  '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct.  As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun.
 As in many SOV languages, modifiers precede their heads:
@@ Line 2,118: / Line 2,241: @@
 ====The Verb Phrase====
-The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate.  The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a copula but later on accreted voice, tense, and the secondary ''ta-'' Inverse marker.  The main verb precedes the copula and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts.  De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below).  Coverbs  appear before the main verb.  The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb.
+The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate.  The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the pleonastic ''ta-'' Inverse marker.  The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts.  De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below).  Coverbs  appear before the main verb.  The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb.
 =====Quasi-Noun Incorporation=====
@@ Line 2,125: / Line 2,248: @@
 Quasi-incorporation may eventually evolve into full noun incorporation, as in the case of Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda.  Both exhibit full noun incorporation.  Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre  adds the incorporated noun after the verb root, e.g. Minhast ''Ušnirumpakekaru'' << ''ušn-ruppumak-ek-ar-u'' (hit-face-3S.ABS+1S.ERG-PST.PFCT-TRANS) "I hit him in the face, I face-hit him",  Nahónda ''klomenatsoyetolayo''<< ''kloma-natsoye-Ø-t-ola-yo'' (speak-wisdom-3S.PT-1S.AGT-PST-AGT) "I gave him counsel, I wisdom-speak to him.  Most languages that exhibit noun incorporation attach the incorporated noun ''before'' the verb root; placement of the incorporated noun after the root is rare among incorporating languages.  The process by which Nankôre performs pseudo-incorporation, namely by placing the O-argument ''between'' the primary verb and auxiliary verbs, may explain why Minhast and Nahónda place their incorporated nouns after the verb.  Proto-Nahenic may have also placed a quasi-incorporated noun after the primary verb but before the auxiliary verb, an order which the descendant languages preserved.
+Quasi-Noun Incorporation serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb.  The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> word order, with that of a SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>:
+*Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá
+|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ ɾi'hat ta'yo:reno taʔɪt'aʔ/
+| morphemes = makse rihat ta=yôre=no  ta-itá-ʔ
+| gloss = mouse.LA falcon.HA  INV=bite=SEM INV-HS.COP-LS
+| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.
+}}
+*Quasi-Noun Incorporation,  SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub> Order
+{{Gloss
+|phrase = Makse yôreno rihat 'itá'
+|IPA = /'makʃɛ̯ 'yo:reno ɾi'hat ʔɪt'aʔ/
+| morphemes = makse yôre=no rihat  ∅-itá-ʔ
+| gloss = mouse.LA bite=SEM falcon DIR-COP-LS
+| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.
+}}
+Quasi-noun incorporation, like the full noun incorporation found in Nankôre's relatives, Minhast and Nahónda, lowers valency, transforming transitive clauses to intransitive clauses.  '''The use of the Inverse marker is no longer needed''', as the incorporated noun has been reduced to an adjunct.  As such, the incorporated noun no longer occupies a core position. Decreasing the clause's valency reduces the saliency of the incorporated noun.
 ====Comparatives and Superlatives====
-Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the auxiliary verb ''soyka'' (to be big, i.e. to be more) or ''hatka'' (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb.  Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy.  In the sentence ''Joe Sara soyka inupe itá'' (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), ''soyka'' precedes the stative verb ''inupe'' (to be strong).  Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status.  If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ''ta-/tā-/tāh-'' surfaces, as in ''Joe Sara '''ta'''-soyka inupe  ta'itá'' (Sara is stronger than Joe).  Other examples:
+Degrees of comparison are formed by placing the coverb ''soyka'' (to be big, i.e. to be more) or ''hatka'' (to be small, i.e. to be less) before a stative verb.  Since two arguments are involved, namely the comparer NP and the compared NP, the phrase is structurally equivalent to a transitive clause, requiring an Agent and a Patient, and follows the rules governing the nominal animacy hierarchy.  In the sentence ''Joe Sara soyka inupe itá'' (Joe is stronger than Sarah; lit. "Joe bigs strongs Sara"), ''soyka'' precedes the stative verb ''inupe'' (to be strong).  Joe, being male, is higher in the animacy scale and so is assigned Agent status.  If Sara were stronger, the Inverse affix ''ta-/tā-/tāh-'' surfaces, as in ''Joe Sara '''ta'''-soyka inupe  ta'itá'' (Sara is stronger than Joe).  Other examples:
 ) ''Joe Sara soyka soyka ta'itá'' (Joe is taller than Sara; lit. "Joe big bigs Sara").
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 ==Example texts==
+=== The Tower of Babel ===
+# Now the whole earth had one language and the same words.
+# And as people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there.
+# And they said to one another, "Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly." And they had brick for stone, and bitumen for mortar.
+# Then they said, "Come, let us build ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be dispersed over the face of the whole earth."
+# And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of man had built.
+# And the Lord said, "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and this is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them.
+# Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they may not understand one another's speech."
+# So the Lord dispersed them from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city.
+# Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth.
+<br/>
+# Saska nammanuyyi nan siôri si-kôre maskoy pintá', kor-kôre nihe pinninnináh.<br/>Now in.those.days mankind one CONN-speech have AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, word-word resemble AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL
+# Iape nanni hóttari pinninnináh, coy siori pintá', Sinar rima pintá', itáp pinninnináh. <br/> So horde approach.setting.sun AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL, forest.clearing see AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, Sinar call AUX.TRN+DIST.PST+HP.LS, sit.down AUX.INTR+DIST.PST.PL
 == Table of Abbreviations ==
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 [[Category:Languages]]
+[[Category:Conlangs]]
 [[Category:Artlangs]]
 [[Category:A priori]]