Glommish: Difference between revisions

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[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon|Vurdbák (Lexicon)]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Þize síde in þiúskenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in {{PAGENAME}})]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|Þe músiczegeskapь (Musical system)]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Musical system|The músikegeskapь (Musical system)]]


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
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|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = an alt-Earth
|setting = [[Verse:Jarthe]]
|nativename = þiúsk
|nativename = the glómsьk
|pronunciation = /θʲuːsk/
|pronunciation = /t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/
|region = North America; Brazil
|region = North America; Brazil
|states = Niúþiúdland
|speakers = 90 million
|speakers = 90 million
|date = 2015
|date = 2015
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|fam1=Indo-European
|fam1=Indo-European
|fam2=Germanic
|fam2=Germanic
|fam3=[[Thedish/Old|Old Thedish]]
|script={{PAGENAME}} script
|script={{PAGENAME}} script
}}
}}


'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (''THEED-ish''; natively ''þe þiúske rarde'' /θə ˈθʲuːskə ra:[retroflex d]ə/; from Proto-Thedic {{recon|''þiudьskъ''}}) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Southern Italy and Tunisia but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's from a fourth branch of West Germanic (i.e. not Ingvaeonic, Istvaeonic or Irminonic). Its speakers are called Thedes (''þiúsken''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (natively ''the glómsьke rarde'' [t{{den}}{{asp}}ˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (''Glóme''). {{PAGENAME}} is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.
 
In-universe German name: ''Glommisch''


==TODO==
==TODO==
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English
sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!


Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words
Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words
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Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?
Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?


Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Thedish, e.g.
Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard
*PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard
Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)
Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)


==History==
==History==
 
Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.
A somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Thedish (which eventually turned into modern American Thedish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
===Native script===
===Native script===
Thedish today uses an alphabetic writing system inspired by the Arabic script, written from right to left but with a Latin aesthetic. It was devised by Andrie Hóchenhym.
Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.


There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''þ''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation). In North Africa, the most common writing system for Thedish was the Arabic abjad. Today, the latter is used for ceremonial purposes.
There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for ''th''), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -''ie'', but -''ie'' was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).


==Phonology==
== Phonology ==
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard and soft consonants.
==Phonology (Historical)==
{{PAGENAME}} phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+
|-
|-
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|  
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|  
!colspan="2" | Labial
!colspan="2" | Labial
!colspan="2" | Dental/Alveolar
!colspan="2" | Dental
!colspan="2" | Lateral
!colspan="2" | Alveolar
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar
!rowspan="2" | Postalveolar
!colspan="2" | Velar
!colspan="2" | Velar
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!colspan="2"| Nasal
!colspan="2"| Nasal
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mь''' {{IPA|mʲ}}
| '''n''' {{IPA|n̪}} || '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}
| ||
|
| '''n''' {{IPA|n}}
|
| '''nь''' {{IPA|nʲ}}
|  
|  
| ||
| || [ŋ]
|  
|  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2" | Stop
!rowspan="3" | Stop
!<small>voiceless</small>
!<small>tenuis</small>
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}
| '''p''' {{IPA|p}} || '''pь''' {{IPA|pʲ}}
| '''t''' {{IPA|t̪}} || '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}
| '''t''' {{IPA|t{{den}}}} || 
|
| 
|
| '''tь''' {{IPA|tʲ}}
|  
| '''cz''' {{IPA|tʃ}}
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}
| '''kь''' {{IPA|kʲ}}|| '''k''' {{IPA|k}}
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})
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!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}
| '''b''' {{IPA|b}} || '''bь''' {{IPA|bʲ}}
| '''d''' {{IPA|d̪}} || '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}
| '''d''' {{IPA|d}}||  
|
|
|  
|  
| '''gь''' {{IPA|gʲ}} || '''g''' {{IPA|g}}
| '''dь''' {{IPA|dʲ}}
| [dʒ]
| || [g]
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | Affricate
!<small>aspirated</small>
| ||  
| ||  
| '''c''' {{IPA|ts}} || '''cь''' {{IPA|tsʲ}}
| '''th''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} ||
| ||
|
| '''thь''' {{IPA|tʰʲ}}
|  
|  
| ||  
| ||  
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!<small>voiceless</small>
!<small>voiceless</small>
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fь''' {{IPA|fʲ}}
|
|
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} || '''sь''' {{IPA|sʲ}}
| '''þ''' {{IPA|θˠ}}
| '''sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}
| '''þь''' {{IPA|θʲ}}
| '''cz~sz''' {{IPA|ʃ}}
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}
| '''chь, hь''' {{IPA|ç}}
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}
| '''ch''' {{IPA|x}}
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!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}
| '''v''' {{IPA|v}} || '''vь''' {{IPA|vʲ}}
|
|
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}
| '''z''' {{IPA|z}} || '''zь''' {{IPA|zʲ}}
|
|
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}
| '''ż''' {{IPA|ʒ}}
|  
|  
|  
| '''g''' {{IPA|ɣ}}
|  
|  
|-
|-
!colspan=2| Resonant
!colspan=2| Resonant
|  ||  
|  ||  
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|ɾʲ}}
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lь''' {{IPA|lʲ}}
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɾ}} || '''rь''' {{IPA|rʲ}}
|  
|  
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}
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|}
|}


/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, g, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, gʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.
/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native {{PAGENAME}}. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.


Voiceless stops are aspirated unless after /s/, as in English and German.
Voiceless stops except ''th'' are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)
 
Final /b(ʲ) d(ʲ) g(ʲ)/ are most often devoiced: ''dag'' [dak] 'day'.
 
Word-final or preconsonantal /p(ʲ) t(ʲ) ts(ʲ) tʃ k(ʲ)/ undergo preaspiration, but not prevocalic /p(ʲ) t(ʲ) ts(ʲ) tʃ k(ʲ)/: e.g. ''nat'' [naht] 'wet', but ''nate hiár'' [natə çɑːr] 'wet hair'. Final ''t'' may be reduced to [h].


Orthographical notes:  
Orthographical notes:  


*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).
*The '''ь''' is replaced with an '''i''' when followed by a vowel (the '''i''' is pronounced as palatalization).
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz'''.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.
*The soft sign '''ь''' and the palatalizing '''i''' soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before '''cz, ż, sz''', and velars '''k, g, ch''' do not soften.) The hard sign '''ъ''' prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.


;Notes:
;Notes:
 
* Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: ''tiúsdag'' 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled ''tiúzdag''.
*Hard /θ/ is strongly velarized [θˠ]. Soft /θʲ/ may be [θ].  
* /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a retroflex approximant or flap and retroflexes alveolars that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian.
*Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.
*Soft /ɾʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''.
* [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: ''jung'' [jʊŋg] 'young', ''junżer'' [ˈjʊ{{adv}}nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.
*For younger speakers of Thedish in New York, the distinction between broad and slender is neutralized in labials and alveolars. Furthermore, slender t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, and broad v is pronounced /w/.
* In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ''ř''. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as ''the konetekatske żírь'' 'the Connecticut buzz'.
*For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: ''biar ik'' [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. ''bierier thú'' [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, ''t'' and ''th'' are merged, and posttonic intervocalic ''d'', ''t'', and ''th'' are flapped.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y y''' can be considered non-palatalizing allophones of '''i í'''.
There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. '''y''' can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of '''í'''.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
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| '''i''' /ɪ/
| '''i''' /ɪ/
| '''í''' /iː/
| '''í''' /iː/
| ('''y''' /ɨ/)
|  
| ('''y''' /ɨː/)
| ('''y''' /ɨi/)
| '''u''' /ʊ/
| '''u''' /ʊ/
| '''ú''' /uː/
| '''ú''' /uː/
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Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].
Word-initially '''i''' and '''í''' are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].
*Short ''u'' lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.
* In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].


==Dialects==
==Dialects==
Different Thedish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.
Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.


*Connecticut Thedish
*Connecticut Glommish
*New York Thedish
*New York Glommish
**Younger New York Thedish (not quite an English accent of Thedish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)
**Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)
*a Thedish-English creole
*a Glommish-English creole


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázús''):
Like German, {{PAGENAME}} has 4 cases (''kázuse'' or ''fále''):
*Nominative
*Nominative (''nominatív, forfál'')
*Accusative
*Accusative (''akuzatív, fanfál'')
*Dative
*Dative (''datív, famfál'')
*Genitive
*Genitive (''żenitív, fizfál'')


However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders, masculine (''mánlik'' or ''arsiènich'') and feminine (''vívlik'' or ''þiálich''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.
However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (''kundien''), masculine (''mánlik'') and feminine (''pienlik''); the neuter has merged with the masculine.


*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.
*The dative plural always ends in ''-em''.
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.
*The genitive plural always ends in ''-en''.
*Nouns with the nominative plural in ''-er'' are always feminine. The converse is usually true except for a few nouns.
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, th'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.
*For the masculine genitive singular, ''-es'' is used if the final consonant is ''t, d, s, z, þ'' or their soft counterparts. Otherwise ''-s'' is used.
* Nouns with a ''-n'' plural are almost always either feminine or ''-n''-stem masculine.


====Articles====
====Articles====
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''þe''.
{{PAGENAME}} uses the indefinite article ''a'' and the definite article ''the''. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.
* ''Mir davienь thá amblen'' 'I like almonds (in general)'
* ''Ik ví amblen'' 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'
* ''Ik ví thá amblen'' 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
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|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''þe'' || ''þí'' || ''þí''  
| ''the'' || ''thá'' || ''thá''  
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''þem'' || ''þier'' || ''þím''  
| ''them'' || ''thier''; ''thím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thím''  
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''þes'' || ''þier'' || ''þier''  
| ''thes'' || ''thier'' || ''thier''  
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''a, an'' || ''ne''  
| ''an'' || ''ne''  
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''nem'' || ''ner''  
| ''nem'' || ''ner''; ''nem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''nes'' || ''ner''  
| ''nes'' || ''ner''  
|}
|}
Before vowels, ''an'' is used instead of ''a''.




{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+ ''þiz'' 'this'
|+ ''thiz'' 'this'
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural  
! rowspan=2 | case || colspan=2 | singular || rowspan="2" | plural  
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''þiz'' || ''þize'' || ''þize''  
| ''thiz'' || ''thize'' || ''thize''  
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''þizem'' || ''þizer'' || ''þizem''  
| ''thizem'' || ''thizer''; ''thizem'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) || ''thizem''  
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''þizes'' || ''þizer'' || ''þizer''  
| ''thizes'' || ''thizer'' || ''thizer''  
|}
|}


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*''ál'' 'all'
*''ál'' 'all'
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'
*''ylьk'' 'one's respective'
*the possessive determiners ''mín; þín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''
*the possessive determiners ''mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín''


====Masculine consonant nouns====
====Masculine consonant nouns====
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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe vulf'' || ''þí vulf'''e'''''  
| ''the vulf'' || ''thá vulf'''e'''''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem vulf'' || ''þím vulf'''em'''''  
| ''them vulf'''ie''''' || ''thím vulf'''em'''''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes vulf'''s''''' || ''þier vulf'''en'''''  
| ''thes vulf'''s''''' || ''thier vulf'''en'''''  
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe bazь'' || ''þí bazie''  
| ''the bazь'' || ''thá bazie''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem bazь'' || ''þím baziem''  
| ''them bazie'' || ''thím baziem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes bazies'' || ''þier bazien''  
| ''thes bazies'' || ''thier bazien''  
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe sun'' || ''þí sunie''  
| ''the sun'' || ''thá sunie''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem sun'' || ''þím suniem''  
| ''them sunie'' || ''thím suniem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes suns'' || ''þier sunien''  
| ''thes suns'' || ''thier sunien''  
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe nam'''e''''' || ''þí nam'''en'''''  
| ''the nam'''e''''' || ''thá nam'''en'''''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem nam'''enь''''' || ''þím nam'''em'''''  
| ''them nam'''enь''''' || ''thím nam'''em'''''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes nam'''enь''''' || ''þier nam'''en'''''  
| ''thes nam'''enь''''' || ''thier nam'''en'''''  
|}
|}


Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''funie'' 'fire', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''vatie'' 'water', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]
Also: ''andie'' 'end', ''ave'' 'river', ''biare'' 'bear', ''fytie'' 'wheat', ''hiarte'' 'heart', ''knave'' 'servant', ''mage'' 'throat', ''óge'' 'eye', ''óre'' 'ear', ''szúe'' 'sky', ''ukse'' 'ox', ''yriene'' 'copper'. [''ave'' can also be declined like a feminine noun.]
 
Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like ''Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь'' 'Al-Farabi', ''Niare, Niarenь'' 'Nero', and ''Apóle, Apólenь'' 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: ''Júne, Júne, Júner'' 'Juno', Safe 'Sappho'.


====Feminine nouns====
====Feminine nouns====
Nouns of this declension type are always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.
This declension type is always feminine in modern {{PAGENAME}}, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like ''-eng'' (deverbal noun) or ''-hyd'' (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'
! colspan="3" | ''naze'' (f.) 'nose'
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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí naze'' || ''þí naz'''er'''''  
| ''thá naze'' || ''thá naz'''en'''''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier naze'' || ''þím naz'''em'''''  
| ''thier naze'' || ''thím naz'''em'''''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier naz'''er''''' || ''þier naz'''en'''''  
| ''thier naz'''er''''' || ''thier naz'''en'''''  
|}
|}


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|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí miark'' || ''þí miarker''  
| ''thá miark'' || ''thá miarken''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier miark'' || ''þím miarkem''  
| ''thier miark'' || ''thím miarkem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier miarker'' || ''þier miarken''  
| ''thier miarker'' || ''thier miarken''  
|}
|}


Line 406: Line 416:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí óre'' || ''þí órer''  
| ''thá óre'' || ''thá óren''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier óre'' || ''þím órem''  
| ''thier óre'' || ''thím órem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier órer'' || ''þier óren''  
| ''thier órer'' || ''thier óren''  
|}
|}
Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun ''the óre'' 'ear'.




{|þ class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''sundie'' (f.) 'vice'
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
Line 424: Line 435:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí sundie'' || ''þí sundier''  
| ''thá starcze'' || ''thá starczen''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier sundie'' || ''þím sundiem''  
| ''thier starcze'' || ''thím starczem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier sundier'' || ''þier sundien''  
| ''thier starczer'' || ''thier starczen''  
|}
|}




{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''starcze'' (f.) 'strength, starch'
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
Line 442: Line 453:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí starcze'' || ''þí starczer''  
| ''thá útriakneng'' || ''thá útriaknengen''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier starcze'' || ''þím starczem''  
| ''thier útriakneng'' || ''thím útriaknengem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier starczer'' || ''þier starczen''  
| ''thier útriaknenger'' || ''thier útriaknengen''  
|}
|}




{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''útriakneng'' (f.) 'bottom line, result'
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
Line 460: Line 471:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí útriakneng'' || ''þí útriaknenger''  
| ''thá hond'' || ''thá hondien''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier útriakneng'' || ''þím útriaknengem''  
| ''thier hond'' || ''thím hondiem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier útriaknenger'' || ''þier útriaknengen''  
| ''thier hondier'' || ''thier hondien''  
|}
|}


 
====Grab bag====
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''hond'' (f.) 'hand'
! colspan="3" | ''mánsьk'' (m.) 'human'
|-
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
! style="width: 90px;" | Case  
Line 478: Line 489:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí hond'' || ''þí hondier''  
| ''the mánsьk'' || ''thá liúdie''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier hond'' || ''þím hondiem''  
| ''them mánsьkenь'' || ''thím liúdiem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier honder'' || ''þier hondien''  
| ''thes mánsьkenь'' || ''thier liúdien''  
|}
|}


====Grab bag====
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'
! colspan="3" | ''mán'' (m.) 'man'
Line 496: Line 506:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe mán'' || ''þí mánier''  
| ''the mán'' || ''thá mánier''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem mán'' || ''þím mánem''  
| ''them mánie'' || ''thím mánem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes máns'' || ''þier mánen''  
| ''thes máns'' || ''thier mánen''  
|}
|}


Line 514: Line 524:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þe fadier'' || ''þí fadrie''  
| ''the fadier'' || ''thá fadrie''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þem fadrie'' || ''þím fadriem''  
| ''them fadrie'' || ''thím fadriem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þes fadiers'' || ''þier fadrien''  
| ''thes fadiers'' || ''thier fadrien''  
|}
|}


Also: ''bráþier'' 'brother'.
Also: ''bráthier'' 'brother'.


{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable " style=" text-align: center;"
Line 533: Line 543:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| ''þí mádier'' || ''þí mádrier''  
| ''thá mádier'' || ''thá mádrien''  
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| ''þier mádier'' || ''þím mádriem''  
| ''thier mádier'' || ''thím mádriem''  
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| ''þier mádrier'' || ''þier mádrien''  
| ''thier mádrier'' || ''thier mádrien''  
|}
|}


Line 546: Line 556:
===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
====Declension====
====Declension====
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem.
Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives'''
! case || singular || plural
|-
! nom.
| ''the hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''thá hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''thá hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''thá hóch'''en''' pianen''
|-
! dat.
| ''them hóch'''enь''' mánie''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''thím hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''thím hóch'''em''' pianem''
|-
! gen.
| ''thes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''thier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''thier hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''thier hóch'''en''' pianen''
|}


For attributive adjectives, the following declension is used regardless of gender or definiteness (the following is the declension of ''hóch'' 'high, tall'):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
|+ '''Attributive declension for hard-stem adjectives'''
|+ '''Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives'''
! case || singular || plural  
! case || singular || plural  
|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''a/þe hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne/þí hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''(þí) hóch'''en''' mánier''<br/>''(þí) hóch'''en''' pianer''
| ''an hóch'''e''' mán''<br/>''ne hóch'''e''' piane'' || ''hóch'''e''' mánier''<br/>''hóch'''e''' pianen''
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''nem/þem hóch'''enь''' mán''<br/>''ner/þier hóch'''enь''' piane'' || ''(þím) hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''(þím) hóch'''em''' pianem''
| ''nem hóch'''em''' mánie''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' piane'' || ''hóch'''em''' mánem'' <br/>''hóch'''em''' pianem''
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''nes/þes hóch'''enь''' máns''<br/>''ner/þier hóch'''enь''' pianer'' || ''(þier) hóch'''en''' mánen''<br/>''(þier) hóch'''en''' pianen''  
| ''nes hóch'''es''' máns''<br/>''ner hóch'''er''' pianer'' || ''hóch'''er''' mánen''<br/>''hóch'''er''' pianen''  
|}
|}


Line 578: Line 600:
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en'''''  
| ''skóni'''enь''''' || ''skóni'''en'''''  
|}
|}
Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.


====Degree====
====Degree====
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.
The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-ьst'' (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): ''svát, svátier, svátiest'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.


Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''þe/þí X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь þe baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.
Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually ''the/thá X-ste'' is used predicatively. Example: ''Mín tat isь the baste'' = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use ''-ьst''.


Other degree words:
Other degree words:


''svinþ'', ''óczenь'' (Western) = 'very'
''svinth'' = 'very'


''tá'' = 'too'
''tá'' = 'too'
Line 594: Line 618:
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'
''X-ier nisь'' = 'more X than'


''þe/þí X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'
''the/thá X-ьste av'' = 'the most X of'


''þe/þí ál-X-ьste'' or ''þe/þí X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'
''the/thá ál-X-ьste'' or ''the/thá X-ьste av álem'' = 'the most X of all'


''miénier X'' = 'less X'
''miénier X'' = 'less X'
Line 615: Line 639:
| ''baste''
| ''baste''
|-
|-
! "bad"
! "bad (ill-behaved, evil)"
| ''kak''
| ''druk''
| ''virsier*''
| ''viszer'' (expected ''**virsier'')
| ''virьste*''
| ''viszte'' (expected ''**virьste'')
|-
|-
! "much, many"
! "much, many"
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)
| ''miczel, micz'' (not declined)
| ''myr''
| ''myr'' (not declined)
| ''myste''
| ''myste''
|-
|-
! "few, little"
! "few, little"
| ''fó''
| ''fó'' (not declined)
| ''miénier''
| ''miénier'' (not declined)
| ''miénьste''
| ''miénьste''
|}
|}
''Fó'' is used for both count and non-count nouns; ''Et finsь fó hupie.'' 'There is little hope.'


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Line 635: Line 660:
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.
The 2pl ''úr'' is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.


The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''þídech riagnedь et'' 'Today it rained'.
The neuter pronoun ''et'' survives as a dummy pronoun: ''thídech riagnedie et'' 'Today it rained'.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative
! rowspan=2 | case || rowspan=2 | 1sg. || rowspan=2 | 2sg. (familiar) || colspan=2 | 3sg. || rowspan=2 | 1du. || rowspan=2 | 2du.  || rowspan=2 | 1pl. || rowspan=2 | 2pl. || rowspan="2" | 3pl. || rowspan="2" | reflexive || rowspan="2" | impersonal || rowspan="2" | interrogative
|-
|-
! m. || f.  
! m. || f.  
|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''
| ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er'' || ''sí'' || ''bit'' || ''it'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí'' || ''-'' || ''sum'' || ''for''
|-
|-
! acc.
! acc.
| ''mik'' || ''þik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''
| ''mik'' || ''thik'' || ''jan'' || ''í'' || ''ump'' || ''imp'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''í'' || ''sik'' || ''sumen'' || ''fan''
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''þir'' (pronounced ''þír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar'' || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''
| ''mir'' (pronounced ''mír'') || ''thir'' (pronounced ''thír'') || ''jam'' || ''jar''; ''ím'' (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)
|| ''ump'' || ''imp''  || ''unsь'' || ''ú'' || ''ím'' || ''sir'' (pronounced ''sír'') || ''sume'' || ''fam''
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''mín'' || ''þín'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín'' || ''sín'' || ''fizer''
| ''mín(er)'' || ''thín(er)'' || ''jazer'' || ''jarer'' || ''umpier'' || ''impier''  || ''unsier'' || ''úrer'' || ''jarer'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''sín(er)'' || ''fizer''
|}
|}


The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.
The form ''bír'' comes from earlier ''vír'' which assimilated to the verb ending ''-em'' in inverted constructions: ''jatem bír'' 'we eat' < ''*jatem vír''.


The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáþ!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)
The impersonal pronoun ''sum'' in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: ''Sum gáth!'' 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)


Genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie a fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.'
In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: ''Ik kánie an fríend jazer.'' 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually ''Ik kánie an fríend av jam.''
=====Possessive pronouns=====
=====Possessive pronouns=====
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.
To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of ''unsier'' and ''úrer'' become ''unsь-'' and ''úr-'' when a suffix is added. The reflexive ''sín'' is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while ''jaz'' or ''jar'' refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.


Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''Þe siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'
Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: ''The siag isь unsier!'' 'Victory is ours!'


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"  
Line 671: Line 697:
|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''mín''<br/>''þín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''þíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''þíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize''  
| ''mín''<br/>''thín''<br/>''sín''<br/>''jaz''<br/>''jar''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fiz'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize'' || ''míne''<br/>''thíne''<br/>''síne''<br/>''jaze''<br/>''jare''<br/>''unsie''<br/>''úre''<br/>''fize''  
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''mínem''<br/>''þínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''þíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''þínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''
| ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''mínem''<br/>''thínem''<br/>''sínem''<br/>''jazem''<br/>''jarem''<br/>''unsiem''<br/>''úrem''<br/>''fizem''
|-
|-
! gen.
! gen.
| ''míns''<br/>''þíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''þíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''þíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''
| ''míns''<br/>''thíns''<br/>''síns''<br/>''jazes''<br/>''jares''<br/>''unsies''<br/>''úres''<br/>''fizes'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer'' || ''míner''<br/>''thíner''<br/>''síner''<br/>''jazer''<br/>''jarer''<br/>''unsier''<br/>''úrer''<br/>''fizer''
|}
|}


====Demonstrative====
====Demonstrative====
*''þiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that
*''thiz'' = this; ''jín'' = that
*''þat'' = (anaphoric) that
*''that'' = (anaphoric) that
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what
*''for, fan, fam'' = who; ''fiz'' = whose; ''fat'' = what
*''fanь'' = when
*''fanь'' = when
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus
*''fí'' = how; ''sá'' = like this/that, so, thus
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''þár'' = there
*''fár'' = where; ''hiér'' = here; ''thár'' = there
*''fanьs, hienьs, þanьs'' = from where, from here, from there
*''fanьs, hienьs, thanьs'' = from where, from here, from there
*''fidier, hidier, þadier'' = to where, to here, to there
*''fidier, hidier, thadier'' = to where, to here, to there
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''þár + preposition'' = there- + preposition
*''fár + preposition'' = where- + preposition; ''hiér + preposition'' = here- + preposition; ''thár + preposition'' = there- + preposition
*''fárup'' = why
*''fárup'' = why
*''filьk'' = which
*''filьk'' = which
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)
*''salьk'' = such; like this, that (attributive)
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')
*''ylьk'' = (one's) respective (cognate with English ''each'')
**''Álmán háþ ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.
**''Álmán háth ylьke probliámen.'' = Everyone has their own problems.
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.
**''Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem.'' = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.
*''ál'' = all, every
*''ál'' = all, every
*''byþe, byþem, byþer'' = both
*''bythe, bythem, byther'' = both
*''álþing, álmán'' = everything, everyone
*''álthiéng, álmán'' = everything, everyone
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific)  
*''kniét, kniétfilьk'' = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific) [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]
** ''Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that...'' = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'
*''jeþich'' = some (specific)
*''kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár...'' = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]
*''jeþfat, jeþmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)
*''jethich'' = some (specific)
*''nýþing, nýmán'' = nothing, no one
*''jethfat, jethmán, ...'' = something, someone (specific)
*''nýthiéng, nýmán'' = nothing, no one
*''ynfat, ynmán'' = (not) anything, anyone


===Adpositions===
===Adpositions===
Line 712: Line 740:
*''biefur'' = before, in front of
*''biefur'' = before, in front of
*''yr'' = before (temporally)
*''yr'' = before (temporally)
*''at'' = at
*''at'' = at, by, next to
** ''Ik jém at þier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.
** ''Ik stande at thier stráte.'' = I'm on the street.
** ''Ik gá at þí stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.
** ''Ik gá at thier stráte.'' = I walk on the street.
** ''Ik gá at thá stráte.'' = I walk towards the street.
*''in'' = in
*''in'' = in
**''in þem'' > ''im''
**''in them'' > ''im''
*''siúþen'' = after
*''siúthen'' = after
*''uvier'' = over
*''uvier'' = over
*''up'' = on
*''up'' = on
Line 726: Line 755:
*''gaszt'' = towards
*''gaszt'' = towards
*''sunder'' = without
*''sunder'' = without
*''þruch'' = through
*''thruch'' = through
*''um'' = around
*''um'' = around
*''viþ'' = against
*''vith'' = against


====Prepositions taking the dative====
====Prepositions taking the dative====
*''av'' = off, from
*''av'' = off, from
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'
*''bí'' = of, at, in, also used like German ''bei'' to indicate 'at someone's place'
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''þ'') = with
*''mid'' (pronounced ''mi'' before ''th'') = with
**''mid þem'' > ''mim''
**''mid them'' > ''mim''
*''ta'' = to
*''ta'' = to
**''ta'' + ''þem, þier'' > ''tam, tar''
**''ta'' + ''them, thier'' > ''tam, tar''
*''úter'' = except
*''úter'' = except


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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:
Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:
*There is one set of personal endings for both thematic and athematic verbs.
*The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.
*The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except ''viárie'' 'were, would be' and ''żenie'' 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.
The standalone negator ''nie'' (''nié'' when stressed) and negative verb forms with ''n-'' (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:
* ''ní-, nilien'': negative of ''ví-, vilien'' (cf. English ''willy-nilly'', from ''will he, nill he'')
* ''niém, niér, nisь'': negative of ''jém, jér, isь''
* ''niét'': negative of ''vyt''
Otherwise, ''nié'' is used in ''nié... yncz''.
====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise. Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.
For the past dental suffix ''-ti-'' is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)''); ''-edi-'' is added if the stem ends in a ''t(i)'' or ''d(i)'' or a hard consonant other than ''k, g, ch''; ''-di-'' is added otherwise (''lióvedie'' is pronounced ''lióvъdie'', though). Past participles are similar, with ''-d'' or ''-t''.
=====Hard weak=====
=====Hard weak=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''
|+ '''''lióven'' 'to love''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveþ'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveþ'' || ''lióvenь''
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvem'' || ''lióveth'' || ''lióvenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''lióve'' || ''lióver'' || ''lióve'' ||  ''lióvem'' || ''lióveþ'' || ''lióvenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieþ'' || ''lióvedienь''  
| ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvedie'' || ''lióvediem'' || ''lióvedieth'' || ''lióvedienь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''lióveþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''lióv!'' / ''lióve!'' || ''lióve er!'' || ''lióvem!'' || ''lióveth!'' || ''lióvenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
Line 773: Line 805:
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''lióved''
|colspan="6"| ''gelióved''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''
|+ '''''varmien'' 'to warm''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieþ'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieþ'' || ''varmienь''
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmiem'' || ''varmieth'' || ''varmienь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''varmie'' || ''varmier'' || ''varmie'' ||  ''varmiem'' || ''varmieþ'' || ''varmienь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieþ'' || ''varmiedienь''  
| ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiedie'' || ''varmiediem'' || ''varmiedieth'' || ''varmiedienь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''varmieþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''varmь!'' / ''varmie!'' || ''varmie er!'' || ''varmiem!'' || ''varmieth!'' || ''varmienь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''varmied''
|colspan="6"| ''gevarmied''
|}
|}


Other examples: ''orvydien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'
Other examples: ''ámlien'' 'work'; ''hórien'' 'hear'; ''lyrien'' 'teach'; ''sażen'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ránien'' 'execute, set into motion'; ''ferránien'' 'to perform, to commit'; ''bránien'' 'burn (transitive)'; ''lażen'' 'lay'; ''vunszen'' 'wish'


Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, brácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, bucht'' 'buy'; ''þanczen, þáchtie, þácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.
Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. ''brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht'' 'bring'; ''bużen, buchtie, gebucht'' 'buy'; ''thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht'' - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.


====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
Broad/slender messed up strong verbs a bit.
non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.
=====Strong class 1=====
=====Strong class 1=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''
|+ '''''bíten'' 'to bite''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieþ'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteþ'' || ''bítenь''
| ''bíte'' || ''bítier'' || ''bítieth'' || ''bítem'' || ''bíteth'' || ''bítenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''bíte'' || ''bíter'' || ''bíte'' ||  ''bítem'' || ''bíteþ'' || ''bítenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteþ'' || ''bitenь''  
| ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bit'' || ''bitem'' || ''biteth'' || ''bitenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''bíteþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''bítь!'' / ''bítie!'' || ''bíte er!'' || ''bítem!'' || ''bíteth!'' || ''bítenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''biten''
|colspan="6"| ''gebiten''
|}
|}
Also: ''színen, szin, szinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, driven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, kliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, smiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, vriten'' 'write', ''vríþen, vriþ, vriþen'' 'weave'.
Also: ''színen, szin, geszinen'' 'shine', ''dríven, driv, gedriven'' 'act', ''klíven, kliv, gekliven'' 'stick, cling', ''smíten, smit, gesmiten'' 'kill', ''vríten, vrit, gevriten'' 'write', ''vríthen, vrith, gevrithen'' 'weave'.


=====Strong class 2=====
=====Strong class 2=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''
|+ '''''czúzen'' 'to choose''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieþ'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeþ'' || ''czúzenь''
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzier'' || ''czúzieth'' || ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeth'' || ''czúzenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''czúze'' || ''czúzer'' || ''czúze'' ||  ''czúzem'' || ''czúzeþ'' || ''czúzenь''
|-
|-
! past  
! past  
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreþ'' || ''czórenь''  
| ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czór'' || ''czórem'' || ''czóreth'' || ''czórenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''czúzeþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''czúzь!'' / ''czúzie!'' || ''czúze er!'' || ''czúzem!'' || ''czúzeth!'' || ''czúzenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''czuren''
|colspan="6"| ''geczuren''
|}
|}
Also: ''biúden, biód, biuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, biugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, fliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, flióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, friuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, liuren'' 'lose'
Also: ''biúden, biód, gebiuden'' 'offer, bid', ''biúgen, bióg, gebiugen'' 'bow', ''fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen'' 'fly', ''fliún, flió, geflióen'' 'flee, escape', ''friúzen, friór, gefriuren'' 'freeze', ''liúzen, liór, geliuren'' 'lose'


=====Strong class 3=====
=====Strong class 3=====
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieþ'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeþ'' || ''bindenь''
| ''binde'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindieth'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindeth'' || ''bindenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''binde'' || ''binder'' || ''binde'' ||  ''bindem'' || ''bindeþ'' || ''bindenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeþ'' || ''biandenь''  
| ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biand'' || ''biandem'' || ''biandeth'' || ''biandenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''bindeþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''bindь!'' / ''bindie!'' || ''binde er!'' || ''bindem!'' || ''bindeth!'' || ''bindenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
Line 888: Line 908:
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''biunden''
|colspan="6"| ''gebiunden''
|}
|}


Also: ''bieżinen, bieżan, bieżunen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, briónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, driunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, fiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, griunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, riónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, spriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, siumben'' 'sing'; ''þrimben, þriamb, þriumben'' 'compel'.
Also: ''bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen'' 'begin'; ''briénen, brián, gebriónen'' 'burn (intransitive)'; ''drinken, driank, gedriunken'' 'drink'; ''finden, fiand, gefiunden'' 'find'; ''grinden, griand, gegriunden'' 'grind'; ''riénen, rián, geriónen'' 'flow, run'; ''springen, spriang, gespriungen'' 'jump, burst, explode'; ''simben, siamb, gesiumben'' 'sing'; ''thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben'' 'to be urgent', ''thvingen, thviang, gethviungen'' 'to force'


=====Strong class 4=====
=====Strong class 4=====
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieþ'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareþ'' || ''biarenь''
| ''biare'' || ''b'''ie'''rier'' || ''b'''ie'''rieth'' || ''biarem'' || ''biareth'' || ''biarenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''biare'' || ''biarer'' || ''biare'' ||  ''biarem'' || ''biarþ'' || ''biarenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárþ'' || ''biárenь''  
| ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biár'' || ''biárem'' || ''biárth'' || ''biárenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''biareþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''bierь!'' / ''bierie!'' || ''biare er!'' || ''biarem!'' || ''biareth!'' || ''biarenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
Line 918: Line 935:
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''biuren''
|colspan="6"| ''gebiuren''
|}
|}
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, briuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, niumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, piumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, driusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, stiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, sviuren'' 'swear', ''viarpen, viárp, viurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, biungen'' 'to fear'
Also: ''gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren'' 'give birth', ''briaken, briák, gebriuken'' 'break', ''niamen, niám, geniumen'' 'take', ''piamen, piám, gepiumen'' 'come', ''driasken, driásk, gedriusken'' 'thresh', ''stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven'' 'long (for)', ''sviaren, sviár, gesviuren'' 'swear', ''viarden, viárd, geviurden'' 'to come about', ''viarpen, viárp, geviurpen'' 'throw', ''biangen, biáng, gebiungen'' 'to fear' ''spriaken, spriák, gespriuken'' 'to speak'


=====Strong class 5=====
=====Strong class 5=====
Line 926: Line 943:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''
|+ '''''żaven'' 'to give''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieþ'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveþ'' || ''żavenь''
| ''żave'' || ''ż'''e'''vier'' || ''ż'''e'''vieth'' || ''żavem'' || ''żaveth'' || ''żavenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''żave'' || ''żaver'' || ''żave'' ||  ''żavem'' || ''żaveþ'' || ''żavenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveþ'' || ''żávenь''  
| ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żáv'' || ''żávem'' || ''żáveth'' || ''żávenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''żevь!'' / ''żevie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''żaveþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''ż'''e'''vь!'' / ''ż'''e'''vie!'' || ''żave er!'' || ''żavem!'' || ''żaveth!'' || ''żavenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
Line 946: Line 960:
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''żaven''
|colspan="6"| ''geżaven''
|}
|}
Also: ''driapen, driáp, driapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, liazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, jaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, sión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, biaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, liagen'' 'lie'
Also: ''driapen, driáp, gedriapen'' 'hit', ''ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten'' 'forget', ''liazen, liáz, geliazen'' 'read', ''jaten, ját, gejaten'' 'eat'. The verb ''sión, siáv, gesión'' 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidien, biád, gebiaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lieżen, liág, geliagen'' 'lie'


=====Strong class 6=====
=====Strong class 6=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''
|+ '''''graven'' 'to dig''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieþ'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveþ'' || ''gravenь''
| ''grave'' || ''gravier'' || ''gravieth'' || ''gravem'' || ''graveth'' || ''gravenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''grave'' || ''graver'' || ''grave'' ||  ''gravem'' || ''graveþ'' || ''gravenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveþ'' || ''grávenь''  
| ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''gráv'' || ''grávem'' || ''gráveth'' || ''grávenь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''graveþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''gravь!'' / ''gravie!'' || ''grave er!'' || ''gravem!'' || ''graveth!'' || ''gravenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
Line 973: Line 984:
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''graven''
|colspan="6"| ''gegraven''
|}
|}
Also: ''slagen, slág, slagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, standen'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, vaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, vasken'' 'wash'.
Also: ''slagen, slág, geslagen'' 'to beat, to hit', ''standen, stánd, gestanden'' 'stand', ''vaksen, váks, gevaksen'' 'grow', ''vasken, vásk, gevasken'' 'wash'.


=====Strong class 7=====
=====Strong class 7=====
Line 989: Line 1,000:
===== Other strongs =====
===== Other strongs =====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''ónen'' 'to like an inanimate object (same syntax as German ''gefallen'')' '''
|+ '''''ándie'' 'would like' '''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
! present
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''óneþ'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ónenь''
|-
! past
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''óndie'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''óndienь''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ánie'' ||  ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ánienь''
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándie'' ||  ''-'' || ''-'' || ''ándienь''
|}
|}
The old preterite-present form ''ánie'' is used in the polite construction ''Mir ánie...'' 'I would like...'
This defective verb from Proto-Germanic ''*unnaną'' 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction ''Mir ándie...'' 'I would like...'.


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
Line 1,007: Line 1,012:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''
|+ '''''viten'' 'to know''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteþ'' || ''vitenь''
| ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vyt'' || ''vitem'' || ''viteth'' || ''vitenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''vite'' || ''viter'' || ''vite'' ||  ''vitem'' || ''viteþ'' || ''vitenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieþ'' || ''vistienь''  
| ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistie'' || ''vistiem'' || ''vistieth'' || ''vistienь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''viteþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''vyt!'' / ''vyte!'' || ''vite er!'' || ''vitem!'' || ''viteth!'' || ''vitenь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''vist''
|colspan="6"| ''gevist''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''
|+ '''''kónen'' 'can''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneþ'' || ''kónenь''
| ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kán'' || ''kónem'' || ''kóneth'' || ''kónenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''kóne'' || ''kóner'' || ''kóne'' ||  ''kónem'' || ''kóneþ'' || ''kónenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieþ'' || ''kóndienь''  
| ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndie'' || ''kóndiem'' || ''kóndieth'' || ''kóndienь''  
|}
|}
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldь'' 'should'),
Similarly ''skólen'' 'shall' (''skóldie'' 'should'),


=====''þurven'' 'to have to'=====
=====''thurven'' 'to have to'=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''þurven'' 'to have to' '''
|+ '''''thurven'' 'to have to' '''
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! Tempus || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''þarv'' || ''þarv'' || ''þarv'' || ''þurvem'' || ''þurveþ'' || ''þurvenь''
| ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''tharv'' || ''thurvem'' || ''thurveth'' || ''thurvenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''þurve'' || ''þurver'' || ''þurve'' ||  ''þurvem'' || ''þurveþ'' || ''þurvenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''þurvdie'' || ''þurvdie'' || ''þurvdie'' || ''þurvdiem'' || ''þurvdieþ'' || ''þurvdienь''  
| ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdie'' || ''thurvdiem'' || ''thurvdieth'' || ''thurvdienь''  
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''
|+ '''''dóren'' 'dare''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreþ'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreþ'' || ''dórenь''
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórem'' || ''dóreth'' || ''dórenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''dóre'' || ''dórer'' || ''dóre'' ||  ''dórem'' || ''dóreþ'' || ''dórenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieþ'' || ''durstienь''  
| ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstie'' || ''durstiem'' || ''durstieth'' || ''durstienь''  
|}
|}


The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use:  
The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use:  
*''Fí durstie þú...'' = How dare you...
*''Fí durstie thú...'' = How dare you...
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren þí anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.
*''Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer.'' = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.


=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====
=====''mogen'' 'may, have a possibility of'=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''
|+ '''''mogen'' 'have a possibility of''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeþ'' || ''mogenь''  
| ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mag'' || ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''  
|-
|-
! subjunctive
! subjunctive
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' ||  ''mogem'' || ''mogeþ'' || ''mogenь''
| ''moge'' || ''moger'' || ''moge'' ||  ''mogem'' || ''mogeth'' || ''mogenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieþ'' || ''mochtienь''  
| ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtie'' || ''mochtiem'' || ''mochtieth'' || ''mochtienь''  
|}
|}


The subjunctive of ''mogen'' is used for wishes like English ''may'':
The subjunctive of ''mogen'' can be used for wishes like English ''may'':


*''Moge unsier land niamen víszt mid burdlózem rícznesem'' = May our country be blessed with boundless riches
*''Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst'' = May our family be blessed with security


=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====
=====''máten'' 'be permitted to'=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''
|+ '''''máten'' 'be permitted to''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteþ'' || ''mátenь''
| ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mát'' || ''mátem'' || ''máteth'' || ''mátenь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''máte'' || ''máter'' || ''máte'' ||  ''mátem'' || ''máteþ'' || ''mátenь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieþ'' || ''mástienь''  
| ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástie'' || ''mástiem'' || ''mástieth'' || ''mástienь''  
|}
|}
=====''vín'' 'want'=====
=====''vín'' 'want'=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''
|+ '''''vín'' 'want''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víþ'' || ''vínь''
| ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''ví'' || ''vím'' || ''víth'' || ''vínь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''vilie'' || ''vilier'' || ''vilie'' ||  ''viliem'' || ''vilieþ'' || ''vilienь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieþ'' || ''vildienь''  
| ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildie'' || ''vildiem'' || ''vildieth'' || ''vildienь''  
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''
|+ '''''bión'' 'to be''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''jém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''siþ'' || ''sinь''  
| ''jém'', (colloquial) ''kiém'', (poetic) ''czém'' || ''jér'' || ''isь'' || ''sim'' || ''sith'' || ''sinь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''bió'' || ''biór'' || ''bió'' ||  ''bióm'' || ''bióþ'' || ''biónь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreþ'' || ''viárenь''  
| ''vaz'' || ''vast'' || ''vaz'' || ''viárem'' || ''viáreth'' || ''viárenь''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieþ'' || ''viárienь''  
| ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viárie'' || ''viáriem'' || ''viárieth'' || ''viárienь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''bióþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''bió!'' || ''bió er!'' || ''bióm!'' || ''bióth!'' || ''biónь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''viáren''
|colspan="6"| ''geviáren''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''
|+ '''''dán'' 'to do''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáþ'' || ''dám'' || ''dáþ'' || ''dánь''
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dáth'' || ''dám'' || ''dáth'' || ''dánь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''dá'' || ''dár'' || ''dá'' ||  ''dám'' || ''dáþ'' || ''dánь''
|-
|-
! past
! past
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéþ'' || ''diénь''  
| ''dié'' || ''diést'' || ''dié'' || ''diém'' || ''diéth'' || ''diénь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''dáþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''dá!'' || ''dá er!'' || ''dám!'' || ''dáth!'' || ''dánь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''dán''
|colspan="6"| ''gedán''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''
|+ '''''gán'' 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)''''
! tense || ''ik'' || ''þú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
! tense || ''ik'' || ''thú'' || ''er/sí'' || ''bír'' || ''úr'' || ''sí''  
|-
|-
! present
! present
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáþ'' || ''gám'' || ''gáþ'' || ''gánь''
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gáth'' || ''gám'' || ''gáth'' || ''gánь''  
|-
! subjunctive
| ''gá'' || ''gár'' || ''gá'' ||  ''gám'' || ''gáþ'' || ''gánь''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeþ'' || ''żangenь''  
| ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żang'' || ''żangem'' || ''żangeth'' || ''żangenь''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup>
! past subjunctive<sup>1</sup>
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieþ'' || ''żenienь''  
| ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żenie'' || ''żeniem'' || ''żenieth'' || ''żenienь''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''gáþ!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''gá!'' || ''gá er!'' || ''gám!'' || ''gáth!'' || ''gánь sí!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
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|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''żangen''
|colspan="6"| ''geżangen''
|}
|}
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.
<sup>1</sup> Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.


Also: ''fán, fiang, fiangen'' - to get, to obtain
Also: ''fán, fiang, gefiangen'' - to get, to obtain


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German.
{{PAGENAME}} word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.


:'''''Fanь ik vakse up, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''
:'''''Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.'''''
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''
:''When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.''
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)
:(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)
Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.
: '''''Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.'''''
: She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.
: (German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)
Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:
: '''''Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].'''''
: ''I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.''
: (German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)
In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction ''VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng'' (cf. English ''fixer-upper''). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.
: '''''húżen út'''''
: 'to express'
: '''''úthúżeng'''''
: 'expression'
: '''''húżeng-úteng'''''
: (''colloquial'') 'expressing'
===Negation===
===Negation===
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪntʃ/ or /əntʃ/) and is used like negative particles in typical Germanic languages.
The negative particle is ''yncz'' (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as ''nicht'' in German independent clauses.


:'''''Drincz þe vatie yncz, er isь fúl!'''''
:'''''Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!'''''
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''
:''Don't drink the water, it's dirty!''


===Possession===
===Possession===
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''þí żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.
Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: ''thá żáve míns fadiers'' 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: ''míns fadiers żáve''.
 
For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction ''At mir sinь tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons."


For "have", in addition to using ''hán'' 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use a construction similar to Irish: ''Et sinь at mír tvy sunie.'' "I have two sons." (lit. There are two sons at me, like Irish ''Tá dhá mhac agam'')
The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.


===Passive===
===Passive===
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.
The passive can be formed by using either ''piamen'' 'to come' or ''niamen'' 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles ''piumen'' or ''niumen'' when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.


For example, ''Þe káke piám jaten.'' or ''Þe káke niám jaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'
For example, ''The káke piám gejaten.'' or ''The káke niám gejaten.'' means 'The cake was eaten.'


Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.
Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun ''sum'' as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.
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===Simple tenses===
===Simple tenses===
====Simple present====
====Simple present====
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present.
The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.


:'''''Ik biange mik av nadrem.'''''
:'''''Ik biange mik av jámietiem.'''''
:''I'm afraid of snakes.''
:''I'm afraid of ants.''


====Simple past====
====Simple past====
The simple past is like the English simple past.
The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like ''bión'' 'to be', ''hán'' 'to have' or ''gán'' 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.
====Subjunctive====
The subjunctive is used in subjunctive clauses specifying a wish or a requirement.
:'''''Ik ví þat er blyve mid mír.'''''
:''I want him to stay with me.''


====Imperative====
====Imperative====
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===Compound tenses===
===Compound tenses===
====Progressive====
====Progressive====
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Thedish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.
Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary ''bión'' is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes ''at'' 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.
* ''Ik jém at jaten þe apel.'' "I am eating the apple."
* ''Kiém at jaten the apel.'' "I'm eating the apple."
* ''Þe hund vaz at þróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."
* ''The hund vaz at thróten jan.'' "The dog was threatening him."
* ''Kiém thárat.'' "I'm on it."


====Perfect====
====Perfect====
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle.
The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary ''hán'' + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.
* ''Ik há jaten þe apel.'' "I have eaten the apple."
* ''Ik há gejaten the apel.'' "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"


====Future====
====Future====
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===Clauses===
===Clauses===
====Conjunctions====
====Conjunctions====
*''ok'' = and
*''end'' = and
*''oþ'' = or
*''oth'' = or
*''nierь'' = but
*''nierь'' = but
*''þóch'' = although
*''thóch'' = although
*''fanь'' = when
*''fanь'' = when
*''þá'', ''als'' (literary) = when
*''thá'', ''als'' (literary) = when
*''ydier... oþ...'' = either... or...
*''ydier... oth...'' = either... or...
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...
*''niádier... nok...'' = neither... nor...
*''saker'' = because
*''thiersak'' = because
*''þat'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtь'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)
*''that'' = that (can be used with ''moge'' + infinitive (present) or ''mochtie'' + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, þat anþere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'
**''Ik '''biesmulte''' et, that anthere '''mogen''' ferstanden.'' = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, þat anþere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'
**''Ik '''biesmultedie''' et, that anthere '''mochtien''' ferstanden.'' = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)
*''iv'' = if (used for conditions that could be true)
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)
*''sadь'' = if (used for counterfactual conditions)
*''þánь'' = then
*''thánь'' = then
*''nisь'' = than
*''nisь'' = than
*''þus'' = so, thus
*''thus'' = so, thus
*''als'' = as
*''als'' = as
*''viedier X oþ Y'' = Both X and Y
*''viedier X oth Y'' = Both X and Y
*''sáls'' = like
*''sáls'' = like
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore
*''alsá'' = thus, therefore


====Relative clauses====
====Relative clauses====
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''þat'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument.
{{PAGENAME}} relative clauses use the relativizer ''that'', and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.
 
The ''thár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.
*''Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)
**Or: ''Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.''
*''the urd that ik rián thárav'' or ''the urd thárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'


The ''þár-'' words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.
==== Indirect speech ====
*''Þí piane þat ik żáv jar fáde þankedie mir.'' = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)
Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.
**Or: ''Þí piane jar ik żáv fáde þankedie mir.''
{{col-begin}}
*''þe urd þat ik rián þárav'' or ''þe urd þárav ik rián'' = 'the place I ran from'
{{col-break}}
Direct speech
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''
:''He says, "I have no money."''
 
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."'''''
:''He said, "I have no money."''
 
:'''''Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."'''''
:''He says, "I had no money."''
 
:'''''Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."'''''
:''He said, "I have no money."'
{{col-break}}
Indirect speech
:'''''Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.'''''
:''He says he doesn't have money.''
 
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.'''''
:''He said he didn't have money.''
 
:'''''Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.'''''
:''He says he didn't have money.''
 
:'''''Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.'''''  
:''He said he hadn't had money.''
{{col-end}}


====Inverted "if" clause====
====Inverted "if" clause====
Like in German. In formal Thedish, the verb, if in present tense, is put in the subjunctive.
Like in German.
 
====Exclamatory inversion====
====Exclamatory inversion====
:'''''Brá, isь aldyrьsk ogel!'''''
:'''''Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!'''''
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''
:''Boy, is Old Irish complicated!''


==Numbers==
==Numbers==


0-10: siúver, yn, tvy, þrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién
0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién
/sɨ:r, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/
/no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/


11-19: ylьf, tvalьf, þrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién
11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/
/ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/


20-90: tvyntich, þrítich, ... achtich, nióntich
20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./
/tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./


21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...
21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...


100: hunderþ
100: hunderth
/hʊndərθ/
/hʊndərθ/


Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-þe'' (weak declension): ''siúverþe, yrste, tvyþe, þridie, fiórþe, finfþe, ...''
Ordinal numbers are formed with ''-te'' or ''-the'' (weak declension): ''nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...''
 
When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals ''tvy, thrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ...'', and dative forms ''tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ...''.


Plural numerals ''tvy, þrí, fiór, ...'' have genitive forms ''tvyer, þríer, fiórer, ...''. Formal Thedish may use the dative forms ''tvym, þríem, fiórem, ...''.
This is how numerals modify plural nouns:
* Nominative: ''tvy thinge'' 'two things'; ''thá tvy thinge'' 'the two things'
* Dative: ''tvy(e)m thingem''; ''thím tvy(e)m thingem''
* Genitive: ''tvyer thingen''; ''thier tvy(en) thingen''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and prefixes):
A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):


''Þe druke map isь at ferbytren þe móre ave.'' = the bad boy is crossing the big river.
''The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave.'' = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.


===Derivational morphology===
===Derivational morphology===
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*''-bier'': '-able'
*''-bier'': '-able'
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive
*''-czen'' (m): diminutive
**''þe kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''þe kot'' 'cat'
**''the kotczen'' 'kitten' < ''the kot'' 'cat'
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"
*''-dám'' (m): "-dom"
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom
**''kuniengdám'' = kingdom
**''þe júdendám'' = Judaism
**''the júdendám'' = Judaism
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'
*''end-'': 'de-, dis-'
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'
**''endyren'': 'dishonor'
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**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'
**''fóliefól'': "complete" < ''fólie'' 'fullness; fill'
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns
*''ge-'': intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'')
**A false example: ''geliór'' ('galore', from Irish ''go leor'' via Irish immigration into America)
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood
*''-hyd'' /-iːd/: -ness, -hood
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'
**''sialvhyd'': 'identity'
*''-ich'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'
*''-ig'': "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'
**''ynóżich'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'
**''ynóżig'': 'one-eyed' < ''yn'' 'one' + ''óge'' 'eye'
**''kaldhiertich'': 'coldhearted'
**''kaldhiertig'': 'coldhearted'
*''-iel'': forms nouns
*''-iel'': forms nouns
**''þe lapiel'': 'spoon'
**''the lapiel'': 'spoon'
**''þe katiel'': 'kettle'
**''the katiel'': 'kettle'
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''
*''-izen'': "-ize", from PGmc ''-isōną''
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)
*''-elen'': "-le", German ''-eln'' (frequentative verbs)
*''-lóz'': "-less"
*''-lóz'': "-less"
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''þe andie'' 'end'
**''andielóz'': 'endless' < ''the andie'' 'end'
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"
*''-ling'' (m): "-ling"
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''þe dag'' 'day'
**''dażlik'' 'daily' < ''the dag'' 'day'
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''þe vurd'' 'word'
**''vurdlik'' 'literal' < ''the vurd'' 'word'
*''mis-'': "mis-"
*''mis-'': "mis-"
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"
**''misdiád'': "misdeed, misdemeanor"
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesier''): forms nouns from verbs
*''-nes'' (f; pl. ''-nesen''): forms nouns from verbs
*''-nie'': feminine suffix
*''-nie'': feminine suffix
**''þí lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''þe lyrierь'' 'teacher'
**''thá lyriernie'' 'teacher (female)' < ''the lyrierь'' 'teacher'
**''þí fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''þe fuks'' 'fox'
**''thá fuksnie'' 'vixen' < ''the fuks'' 'fox'
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together
*''sam-'': equi-, con-, together
*''-sam'': "-some"
*''-sam'': "-some"
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'
**''ynsam'' 'lonely' < ''yn'' 'one'
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''þí gefiár'' 'danger'
**''gefiársam'' 'dangerous' < ''thá gefiár'' 'danger'
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''þe vy'' 'woe'
**''vysam'' 'woeful' < ''the vy'' 'woe'
*''-sk'': "-ish"
*''-sk'': "-ish"
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people
*''-skapie'': "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people
**''simbskapie'' = chorus
**''simbskapie'' = chorus
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''
*''tier-'': German ''zer-''
*''-tórь, -tórnie'' (from Italian ''-tore'')
**''kompozitórь'' 'composer'
*''tví-'': "twi-"
*''tví-'': "twi-"
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)
**''þí unróe'' 'unrest, unease'
**''thá unróe'' 'unrest, unease'
*''ur-''
*''ur-''
**''þe urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'
**''the urdylь'' 'decision' < ''dylь'' 'part'
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs
*''-eng/-ieng'': forms nouns from verbs
**''þí sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'
**''thá sriáleng'' 'radiation' < ''sriálen'' 'shine, radiate'
**''þí hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'
**''thá hytieng'' 'heating' < ''hytien'' 'to heat'
*''-lív'' = -ery, -erei
*''-eríe'' = -ery, -erei


==Phrasebook==
==Phrasebook==
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye
*''Czáv!'' = hello, goodbye
**''Czáv þir!'' (informal AND to one person)
**''Czáv thir!'' (informal AND to one person)
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)
**''Czáv ú!'' (formal OR to more than one person)
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtie!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'
*''Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь!'' = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'
*''Vilьpiumen!'' = 'Welcome!'
*''ónetú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''óneþir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)
*''óntú'' (formal OR to more than one person) / ''ónthir'' (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)
*''Þank!'' = 'Thank you!'
*''Thank!'' = 'Thank you!'
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'
*''Rió isь mir.'' = 'I'm sorry.'
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'
*''Rió'sь.'' = 'Sorry.'
*''Fí hyteþ úr?'' = 'What is your name?'
*''Fí hyteth úr?'' = 'What is your name?'
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'
*''Ik hyte ...'' = 'My name is ...'
*''Fanьs piameþ úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'
*''Fí isь thín/úrer mád?'' = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)
*''Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr?'' = 'Where are you from?'
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'
*''Ik piame av...'' = 'I'm from ...'
**''Angland.'' = 'England'.
**''Anglandie.'' = 'England.'
**''Þiúskland.'' = 'Thedeland.'
**''Czíne.'' = 'China.'
**''Yreland.'' = 'Ireland.'
**''Indije.'' = 'India.'
**''Kamberland.'' = 'Wales.'
**''Amerícze.'' = 'America.'
*''Spriakeþ ú ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'
**''Brazíl.'' = 'Brazil.'
**''Fírienılandie.'' (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'
**''Kamberlandie.'' = 'Wales.'
*''Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ...'' = 'Do you speak ...'
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'
**''... angelьsk?'' = '... English?'
**''... thiúsk?'' = '... German?'
**''... nitherlandьsk?'' = '... Dutch?'
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'
**''... itálьsk?'' = '... Italian?'
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'
**''... griéczk?'' = '... Greek?'
Line 1,416: Line 1,459:
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'
**''... tamierьsk?'' = '... Tamil?'
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'
*''Já.'' = 'Yes.'
**''Já, úr máteþ.'' = 'Yes, you may.'
**''Já, thú mát / úr máteth.'' = 'Yes, you may.'
*''Ny.'' = 'No.'
*''Nié.'' = 'No.'
*''Ik spriake yncz þiúsk.'' = 'I can't speak Þiúsk.'
*''Ik spriake glómsьk yncz.'' = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'
*''Mát ik ú þúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''þú'')?'
*''Mát ik ú thúten?'' = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using ''thú'')?'
*''Isь þat sanþ?'' = 'Is that true?'
*''Isь that santh?'' = 'Is that true?'
*''Óneþ ú...'' / ''Ónenь ú...'' = 'Do you like...'
*''Mir davieth/davenь...'' = 'I like... (a thing)'
*''mir óneþ... / mir ónenь...'' = 'I like...'
* ''Ik há (person) lióv'' = 'I like (person)'
*''mir ánie... / mir ánienь...'' = 'I would like...'
*''Ándie thir / ú...'' / ''Ándienь thir / ú...'' = 'Would you like...'
**''Mir ánie 'n glás vatie, ónetú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'
*''Mir ándie... / mir ándienь...'' = 'I would like...'
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatienь.'' = My hand is in warm water.
**''Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú.'' = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'
**''... 'n dylь bród.'' 'a slice of bread.'
*''Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie.'' = My hand is in warm water.
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.
*''Mín stiúl isь in míner hond.'' = My pen is in my hand.
*''mín druchtien/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)
*''mín miesniórь/míne fróje'' = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)
*''Ik lióve thik.'' = I love you.
*''Mát ik thik kusien?'' = Can I kiss you?


==Names==
==Names==
TODO: P-Celtic, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Arabic names; Anglicized Thedish surnames
Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.
*''Biarhard'' (m.) ("bear-hard"; ~ Bernard)
*''Gardie'' (f.) (~ Gerðr)
*''Gyr-'' ("spear")
**''Gyrhard'' (~ Gerhard)
**''Gyrnod'' (~ Gernot)
**''Gyrъhildь'' (~ Gerhilde)
*''Hazel'' /hazəɫ/ (f.) ("hazel")
*''Hildie'' /çɪlʲdʲə/, ''-hildь'' (f.) (< hildiz "battle")
*''Kól'' (m.) (From a Celtic word for "hazel")
*''Machtildь'' (f.) ("mighty in battle"; ~ Matilda, Mechthild)
*''Onlyv'' (m.) (~ Olaf)
*''Priten'' (m.) (~ Brittany)
*''Sanþie'' /ˈsanθʲə/ (f.) ("truth")
*''Siag-'' ("victory")
**''Siagfriuþ'', ''Siaghildь'', ...
*''Svyn'' /svɨːn/ (m.) (*swainaz "servant"; ~ Sveinn/Sven)
*''Þuner'' (m.) (*Þunraz)
*''Váden'' /vaːdən/ (m.) (~ Odin)
*''Vulf'' /vʊɫəf/ (m.)
*''Ibrym'' (~ Ibrahim)


==Days of the week==
==Days of the week==
*miándag = Monday
*án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays
*tiúsdag = Tuesday
*tiúsdag = Tuesday
*vánsdag = Wednesday
*vánsdag = Wednesday
*þórsdag = Thursday
*thunsdag = Thursday
*frídag = Friday
*frídag = Friday
*lórdag = Saturday
*sabsdag = Saturday
*sóndag = Sunday
*sóndag = Sunday


==Elements==
==Elements==
Elements are masculine.
Elements are masculine.
*vatiestuf = hydrogen
*vaterstuf = hydrogen
*heli = helium
*heli = helium
*liþi = lithium
*lithi = lithium
*beriuli = Be
*bóre = boron
*kólstuf = carbon
*palьstuf = nitrogen
*palьstuf = nitrogen
*súrstuf = oxygen
*súrstuf = oxygen
*fluóri = fluorine
*neë = neon
*natri = sodium
*natri = sodium
*magnézi = magnesium
*alumini = aluminium
*samedstuf = silicon
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus
*liúchtiestuf = phosphorus
*sviál = sulfur
*sviál = sulfur
*chlóri = chlorine
*arge = argon
*yriene = copper
*yriene = copper
*siulver = silver
*siulver/silver = silver
*tin = tin
*tin = tin
*fítgulþ = platinum
*fítgulth = platinum
*gulþ = gold
*gulth = gold
*piksiulver = mercury (element)
*piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)
*bliú = lead
*bliú = lead


==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
===Featured language banner===
===Featured language banner===
:'''''Þiz spriakmál vaz ynst furrichtied.'''''
:'''''Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.'''''
:''This language was once featured.''
:''This language was once featured.''


:'''''Þank jazer upmiáter líkamfólhyd, furvichtlikhyd ok davlikhyd geczór sum ta furrichtien jan.'''''
:'''''Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.'''''
:''Thanks to its level of (lit. level's) quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''
:''Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.''


===VENI, VIDI, VICI===
===VENI, VIDI, VICI===
Line 1,492: Line 1,529:


===UDHR, Article 1===
===UDHR, Article 1===
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng þier Manьskenriachten'''''
:'''''Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten'''''
:'''''Útgliþ 1'''''
:'''''Útglith 1'''''
:'''''Ále mánьsken sinь geburen frí ok javen án vurþie ok ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstand ok riachtkánie ok þurven biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráþierhyder.'''''
:'''''Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.'''''
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈmɑːnʲskən sʲɪnʲ gəˈbʊɾən fʲɾʲiː ək ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲθʲɪ ək ˈɑ:nʲɾʲaxtəm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈdʒɑːvd mʲɪd fərˈstand ək rʲaxtkɑːnʲə | ək ˈθˠʊɾəvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn gaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲstə jɪn andənʲ ˈbrɑːθʲɪɾiːdəɾ]
:[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
:''All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''


===Schleicher's Fable===
===Schleicher's Fable===
'''''Þe száp ok þí ruse'''''
'''''The száp end thá ruse'''''


''A száp þat hádie ny vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen a þunge vage, yn at biaren ne móre lost, ok yn at snióm biaren a mánьsk. Þe száp sażdie þím rusem: "Þe hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe a mánьsk at dríven ruse án." Þí ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, þe hiarte isь unsь  syr saker þiz hám bír sióen: a mánьsk, þe druchtien, makeþ sir a varme klyþ út þier szápen vóle, ok þe száp háþ niót vóle myr." Als þe száp hóriedie þiz, flióch er þruch þí miédve.''
''An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.''


===Gettysburg Address===
===Gettysburg Address===
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án þizem jarþedylie a niúe þióde, tiúszt in fríhyd, ok ervíszt þier belóvnes þat ale manьsken sinь skafen javen.''
''Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.''
 
===Erlkönig===
<poem>
For rídieþ sá lat þruch nachtь ok vind?
Et isь þe fadier mid sínem czind;
Er háþ þe bákien vial in þem arm,
Er fateþ jan tróstich, er haldieþ jan varm.
 
Wer reitet so spät durch Nacht und Wind?
Es ist der Vater mit seinem Kind;
Er hat den Knaben wohl in dem Arm,
Er fasst ihn sicher, er hält ihn warm.
</poem>


===Mín fadierland isь míne arm'===
=== Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology) ===
National anthem of Thedeland
''Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:''


<poem>
=== Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí) ===
''Mín fadierland isь míne arm',''
The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.
''Jam ik mín hiarte żav',''
# Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.
...
# Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,
</poem>
# them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,
# them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.
# Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.
# Lydie unsь the sniále viag,
# the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.


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[[Category:Jarþe]]
[[Category:Jarthe]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:West Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]

Latest revision as of 15:21, 7 October 2024

Vurdbák (Lexicon)
Swadesh list
Thize síde in glómsьkenь (This page in Glommish)
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The músikegeskapь (Musical system)

Glommish
the glómsьk
Pronunciation[/t̪ʰˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲk/]
Created byIlL
SettingVerse:Jarthe
Native speakers90 million (2015)
Indo-European
  • Germanic
    • Glommish

Glommish (natively the glómsьke rarde [t̪ʰˠə ɣɫˠoːmʲsʲkə ɾˠaːɖə]) is a Germanic language which was historically spoken in parts of Italy but is now mostly spoken by diaspora populations in North America and Brazil. It's classified as West Germanic in-universe, but forms a distinct group from what is called West Germanic in our timeline. Glommish is phonologically the most conservative Germanic language in Jarthe and is strikingly similar to reconstructed Proto-Germanic. Its speakers are called Gloms (Glóme). Glommish is intended to have a pseudo-Irish and pseudo-Slavic aesthetic.

In-universe German name: Glommisch

TODO

sources of loans: Latin, Greek, Arabic, English; needs more Arabic loans!

Look at OE/Dutch for more vr- words

Try to express things with Germanic roots, but without calquing

Dutchify the grammar

Simplify some consonant clusters like a few cht's?

Introduce random sound changes in the evolution of Glommish, e.g.

  • PWGmc *gardaz -> gerdaz -> żard

Should be a koiné (some "Low Glommish" dialects can have PIE dh/vernerized t -> z which shows up in some words)

Weird vowel mixups (eh2 -> ó instead of á in a few words)

History

Hasien Elь-Chuliédí (todo: Glommish pseudonym) was a somewhat controversial Simon Stevin-like figure who reformed the language, by essentially creating and promoting his own dialect of Glommish (which eventually turned into modern American Glommish dialects) -- he was a scholar of Germanic philology and invented coinages based on Old English and Old Dutch; he also published a dictionary of the ancient Langobardic language.

Orthography

Native script

Glommish today uses the Latin orthography used in this article. It was devised by linguist Andrie Hóchenhym.

There was a traditional Roman orthography which was historically used in Italy; spelling was very unsystematic and there were sometimes many different glyphs for the same sound (for instance, at least five different glyphs are attested for th), and vice versa (e.g. final -i mostly denoted both palatalization and -ie, but -ie was sometimes written -ii for disambiguation).

Phonology

Phonology (Historical)

Glommish phonology is characterized by retroflexion and pairs of hard (unpalatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants. Palatalization is as strong as in Russian in the traditional pronunciation of Glommish.

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Glottal
hard soft hard soft hard soft soft hard
Nasal m m mь mʲ n n nь nʲ [ŋ]
Stop tenuis p p pь pʲ t t̪ tь tʲ cz tʃ kь kʲ k k (ʔ)
voiced b b bь bʲ d d dь dʲ [dʒ] [g]
aspirated th t̪ʰ thь tʰʲ
Fricative voiceless f f fь fʲ s s sь sʲ sz ʃ chь, hь ç ch x h h
voiced v v vь vʲ z z zь zʲ ż ʒ g ɣ
Resonant l ɫ lь lʲ r ɾ rь rʲ j j

/tʃ, ʒ, ʃ/ are soft alternants of /k, ɣ, x/ in native Glommish. /kʲ, ts, tsʲ/ are mainly found in foreign loans.

Voiceless stops except th are unaspirated, as in Dutch. (In New York they are aspirated the same way as in American English.)

Orthographical notes:

  • The ь is replaced with an i when followed by a vowel (the i is pronounced as palatalization).
  • The soft sign ь and the palatalizing i soften every consonant in the cluster that precede it by default. (However, consonants do not soften before cz, ż, sz, and velars k, g, ch do not soften.) The hard sign ъ prevents the softening of consonants to the left of the hard sign.
Notes
  • Regressive voicing assimilation occurs in clusters of two or more obstruents, as in Slavic: tiúsdag 'Tuesday' is pronounced as if it were spelled tiúzdag.
  • /t̪ʰ tʰʲ/ are somewhat breathy aspirated stops [t̪ʱ tʱʲ]. They are affricates or fricatives when word-final and not retroflexed.
  • Hard /ɾ/ is generally a velarized retroflex approximant or flap. It retroflexes /n t̪ t̪ʰ d s/ that follow it, as in Swedish and Norwegian; when this retroflexion happens, it compensatorily lengthens the preceding vowel.
  • [dʒ] and [g] are allophones of /ʒ/ and [ɣ] used after /n/ which assimilates to [ŋ] before velar stops: jung [jʊŋg] 'young', junżer [ˈjʊ̟nd͡ʒəɹˠ] 'younger'.
  • In accents that distinguish it, soft /rʲ/ may be [r̝] like Czech ř. The Czech-ř pronunciation predominates in Connecticut and is often known as the konetekatske żírь 'the Connecticut buzz'.
  • For younger speakers of Glommish in New York, the distinction between non-palatalized and palatalized is neutralized in labials and alveolars, except for labials before back vowels where palatalized labials become /Cj/: biar ik [bjaɹ ɪk~bjɛɹ ɪk] 'I carry' vs. bierier thú [bɛɹəɹ tʰʊ] 'you carry'. Furthermore, palatalized t d n are pronounced as in Polish ć dź ń, /ʃ tʃ ʒ/ are pronoounced as /ʂ tʂ ʐ/, and non-palatalized v is pronounced /w/. Dental stops are pronounced as alveolar, t and th are merged, and posttonic intervocalic d, t, and th are flapped.

Vowels

There are five phonemic vowel qualities with length. y can be considered the non-palatalizing allophone of í.

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i /ɪ/ í /iː/ (y /ɨi/) u /ʊ/ ú /uː/
Mid e /ɛ/ é /eː/ (e [ə]) o /ɔ/ ó /oː/
Open a /a/ á /ɑː/

Word-initially i and í are pronounced [jɪ] and [jiː].

  • Short u lengthens to /u:/ after soft consonants in younger New York Glommish.
  • In younger NY Glommish, /a/ is [æ] except after a soft consonant, where it becomes [ɛ] or [jɛ].

Dialects

Different Glommish dialects mainly vary in grammar and vocabulary, and extent of English influence.

  • Connecticut Glommish
  • New York Glommish
    • Younger New York Glommish (not quite an English accent of Glommish, it underwent its own peculiar changes)
  • a Glommish-English creole

Morphology

Nouns

Like German, Glommish has 4 cases (kázuse or fále):

  • Nominative (nominatív, forfál)
  • Accusative (akuzatív, fanfál)
  • Dative (datív, famfál)
  • Genitive (żenitív, fizfál)

However, nominative and accusative are only distinguished in pronouns. There are two genders (kundien), masculine (mánlik) and feminine (pienlik); the neuter has merged with the masculine.

  • The dative plural always ends in -em.
  • The genitive plural always ends in -en.
  • For the masculine genitive singular, -es is used if the final consonant is t, d, s, z, th or their soft counterparts. Otherwise -s is used.
  • Nouns with a -n plural are almost always either feminine or -n-stem masculine.

Articles

Glommish uses the indefinite article a and the definite article the. Due to historical Italian and Arabic influence, Glommish uses the definite article the same way Arabic does: nonspecific nouns take the definite article, unlike in English.

  • Mir davienь thá amblen 'I like almonds (in general)'
  • Ik ví amblen 'I want almonds (specific indefinite plural noun)'
  • Ik ví thá amblen 'I want the almonds (specific definite)'
Definite article
case singular plural
m. f.
nom. the thá thá
dat. them thier; thím (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) thím
gen. thes thier thier


Indefinite article
case singular
m. f.
nom. an ne
dat. nem ner; nem (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal)
gen. nes ner


thiz 'this'
case singular plural
m. f.
nom. thiz thize thize
dat. thizem thizer; thizem (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) thizem
gen. thizes thizer thizer

Declined likewise are:

  • jín 'that'
  • ál 'all'
  • ylьk 'one's respective'
  • the possessive determiners mín; thín; is; jar; unsier, unsь-; úrer, úr-; jar; sín

Masculine consonant nouns

The genitive plural -n was generalized from masculine n-stem nouns.

vulf (m.) 'wolf'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the vulf thá vulfe
Dative them vulfie thím vulfem
Genitive thes vulfs thier vulfen


bazь (m.) 'berry'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the bazь thá bazie
Dative them bazie thím baziem
Genitive thes bazies thier bazien


sun (m.) 'son'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the sun thá sunie
Dative them sunie thím suniem
Genitive thes suns thier sunien

n-stems

Declined like attributive adjectives. These nouns are masculine, except for nominalized feminine adjectives.

name (m.) 'name'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the name thá namen
Dative them namenь thím namem
Genitive thes namenь thier namen

Also: andie 'end', ave 'river', biare 'bear', fytie 'wheat', hiarte 'heart', knave 'servant', mage 'throat', óge 'eye', óre 'ear', szúe 'sky', ukse 'ox', yriene 'copper'. [ave can also be declined like a feminine noun.]

Arabic nisba names and Latin and Greek -ō names become n-stems, like Elь-Ferábí, Elь-Ferábíenь 'Al-Farabi', Niare, Niarenь 'Nero', and Apóle, Apólenь 'Apollo'. Feminine Latin and Greek -ō names use the feminine declension instead: Júne, Júne, Júner 'Juno', Safe 'Sappho'.

Feminine nouns

This declension type is always feminine in modern Glommish, arising from a mixture of Proto-Germanic ō-stems and weak feminine stems. Nouns with certain suffixes like -eng (deverbal noun) or -hyd (abstract noun) and loanwords that were feminine in the source language also belong in this class.

naze (f.) 'nose'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá naze thá nazen
Dative thier naze thím nazem
Genitive thier nazer thier nazen


miark (f.) 'girl'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá miark thá miarken
Dative thier miark thím miarkem
Genitive thier miarker thier miarken


óre (f.) 'clock'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá óre thá óren
Dative thier óre thím órem
Genitive thier órer thier óren

Note: not to be confused with the masculine n-stem noun the óre 'ear'.


starcze (f.) 'strength, starch'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá starcze thá starczen
Dative thier starcze thím starczem
Genitive thier starczer thier starczen


útriakneng (f.) 'bottom line, result'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá útriakneng thá útriaknengen
Dative thier útriakneng thím útriaknengem
Genitive thier útriaknenger thier útriaknengen


hond (f.) 'hand'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá hond thá hondien
Dative thier hond thím hondiem
Genitive thier hondier thier hondien

Grab bag

mánsьk (m.) 'human'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the mánsьk thá liúdie
Dative them mánsьkenь thím liúdiem
Genitive thes mánsьkenь thier liúdien
mán (m.) 'man'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the mán thá mánier
Dative them mánie thím mánem
Genitive thes máns thier mánen


r-stem: fadier (m.) 'father'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative the fadier thá fadrie
Dative them fadrie thím fadriem
Genitive thes fadiers thier fadrien

Also: bráthier 'brother'.

r-stem: mádier (f.) 'mother'
Case Singular Plural
Nominative thá mádier thá mádrien
Dative thier mádier thím mádriem
Genitive thier mádrier thier mádrien

Also: sviestier 'sister', duchtier 'daughter'.

Adjectives

Declension

Predicative adjectives use the bare stem. Like all non-Anglic Germanic languages, Glommish preserves the distinction between strong and weak adjectives.

Weak declension for hard-stem adjectives
case singular plural
nom. the hóche mán
thá hóche piane		 thá hóchen mánier
thá hóchen pianen
dat. them hóchenь mánie
thier hóchenь piane		 thím hóchem mánem
thím hóchem pianem
gen. thes hóchenь máns
thier hóchenь pianer		 thier hóchen mánen
thier hóchen pianen
Strong declension for hard-stem adjectives
case singular plural
nom. an hóche mán
ne hóche piane		 hóche mánier
hóche pianen
dat. nem hóchem mánie
ner hócher piane		 hóchem mánem
hóchem pianem
gen. nes hóches máns
ner hócher pianer		 hócher mánen
hócher pianen

Soft-stem adjectives such as skónь 'beautiful' are declined similarly.

Attributive declension for soft-stem adjectives
case singular plural
nom. skónie skónien
dat. skónienь skóniem
gen. skónienь skónien

Bare attributive adjectives are sometimes used as nouns.

Degree

The comparative and superlative are formed with the suffixes -ier and -ьst (k, g, ch + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; cz, ż, sz + -ьst > -czest, -żest, -szest; d/t/z/s + -ьst > d/t/z/s + -iest): svát, svátier, svátiest 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.

Predicate forms for superlatives are rare: usually the/thá X-ste is used predicatively. Example: Mín tat isь the baste = 'My dad is the best'. When used adverbially, superlatives use -ьst.

Other degree words:

svinth = 'very'

tá = 'too'

jám X als = 'as X as'

X-ier nisь = 'more X than'

the/thá X-ьste av = 'the most X of'

the/thá ál-X-ьste or the/thá X-ьste av álem = 'the most X of all'

miénier X = 'less X'

miénьst X = 'least X'

There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.

Meaning Positive Comparative Superlative
"good" gád, vial (adv.) batier baste
"bad (ill-behaved, evil)" druk viszer (expected **virsier) viszte (expected **virьste)
"much, many" miczel, micz (not declined) myr (not declined) myste
"few, little" fó (not declined) miénier (not declined) miénьste

Fó is used for both count and non-count nouns; Et finsь fó hupie. 'There is little hope.'

Pronouns

Personal

The 2pl úr is also used as a polite 2nd person pronoun.

The neuter pronoun et survives as a dummy pronoun: thídech riagnedie et 'Today it rained'.

case 1sg. 2sg. (familiar) 3sg. 1du. 2du. 1pl. 2pl. 3pl. reflexive impersonal interrogative
m. f.
nom. ik thú er sí bit it bír úr sí - sum for
acc. mik thik jan í ump imp unsь ú í sik sumen fan
dat. mir (pronounced mír) thir (pronounced thír) jam jar; ím (inanimate, Connecticut dialectal) ump imp unsь ú ím sir (pronounced sír) sume fam
gen. mín(er) thín(er) jazer jarer umpier impier unsier úrer jarer sín(er) sín(er) fizer

The form bír comes from earlier vír which assimilated to the verb ending -em in inverted constructions: jatem bír 'we eat' < *jatem vír.

The impersonal pronoun sum in the nominative case can be used as the 1st person plural in impersonal speech: Sum gáth! 'Let's go!' (lit. one goes)

In high register, genitive pronouns can be used as postposed possessive pronouns for indefinite nouns: Ik kánie an fríend jazer. 'I know a friend of his.' This is usually Ik kánie an fríend av jam.

Possessive pronouns

To form possessive pronouns, "determiner" endings are added to the genitive of the personal pronouns; the stems of unsier and úrer become unsь- and úr- when a suffix is added. The reflexive sín is used to refer to a third person subject in the same clause, while jaz or jar refer to 3rd person subjects other than the subject.

Possessive pronouns in predicative position are the masculine nominative form of the pronoun: The siag isь unsier! 'Victory is ours!'

Possessive pronouns
case singular plural
m. f.
nom. mín
thín
sín
jaz
jar
unsier
úrer
fiz		 míne
thíne
síne
jaze
jare
unsie
úre
fize		 míne
thíne
síne
jaze
jare
unsie
úre
fize
dat. mínem
thínem
sínem
jazem
jarem
unsiem
úrem
fizem		 míner
thíner
síner
jazer
jarer
unsier
úrer
fizer		 mínem
thínem
sínem
jazem
jarem
unsiem
úrem
fizem
gen. míns
thíns
síns
jazes
jares
unsies
úres
fizes		 míner
thíner
síner
jazer
jarer
unsier
úrer
fizer		 míner
thíner
síner
jazer
jarer
unsier
úrer
fizer

Demonstrative

  • thiz = this; jín = that
  • that = (anaphoric) that
  • for, fan, fam = who; fiz = whose; fat = what
  • fanь = when
  • fí = how; sá = like this/that, so, thus
  • fár = where; hiér = here; thár = there
  • fanьs, hienьs, thanьs = from where, from here, from there
  • fidier, hidier, thadier = to where, to here, to there
  • fár + preposition = where- + preposition; hiér + preposition = here- + preposition; thár + preposition = there- + preposition
  • fárup = why
  • filьk = which
  • salьk = such; like this, that (attributive)
  • ylьk = (one's) respective (cognate with English each)
    • Álmán háth ylьke probliámen. = Everyone has their own problems.
    • Sum skál liáten ú biaren riaknes up úrem ylьkem biedrívengem. = Each of you will be held accountable for your own actions.
  • ál = all, every
  • bythe, bythem, byther = both
  • álthiéng, álmán = everything, everyone
  • kniét, kniétfilьk = some (non-specific); any, arbitrary
    • Furь kniét x, finьs et an y, salьk that... = 'For any x, there exists a y, such that...'
  • kniétfat, kniétfor, kniétfár... = something, someone, somewhere (non-specific); anything, anyone, anywhere [< *ik ne wait hwat 'I don't know what' etc.]
  • jethich = some (specific)
  • jethfat, jethmán, ... = something, someone (specific)
  • nýthiéng, nýmán = nothing, no one
  • ynfat, ynmán = (not) anything, anyone

Adpositions

Prepositions taking both the dative and the accusative

When governing the dative, these prepositions indicate location; when governing the accusative they indicate destination.

  • afte = after
  • án = (high register) on, upon; to, unto
  • biefur = before, in front of
  • yr = before (temporally)
  • at = at, by, next to
    • Ik stande at thier stráte. = I'm on the street.
    • Ik gá at thier stráte. = I walk on the street.
    • Ik gá at thá stráte. = I walk towards the street.
  • in = in
    • in them > im
  • siúthen = after
  • uvier = over
  • up = on
  • út = outside of, out of

Prepositions taking the accusative

  • furь = for
  • gaszt = towards
  • sunder = without
  • thruch = through
  • um = around
  • vith = against

Prepositions taking the dative

  • av = off, from
  • bí = of, at, in, also used like German bei to indicate 'at someone's place'
  • mid (pronounced mi before th) = with
    • mid them > mim
  • ta = to
    • ta + them, thier > tam, tar
  • úter = except

Prepositions taking the genitive

  • atstad = instead of
  • saker = because of
  • fíler = during

Verbs

Verbs have undergone some simplifications. For example:

  • The present subjunctive only survives in 3rd person imperatives.
  • The past subjunctive has disappeared as a distinct form except viárie 'were, would be' and żenie 'would'. Modal verbs often use the past form for the past subjunctive.

The standalone negator nie (nié when stressed) and negative verb forms with n- (from Proto-Germanic *ne) remain in use in poetry:

  • ní-, nilien: negative of ví-, vilien (cf. English willy-nilly, from will he, nill he)
  • niém, niér, nisь: negative of jém, jér, isь
  • niét: negative of vyt

Otherwise, nié is used in nié... yncz.

Weak verbs

For the past dental suffix -ti- is added if the stem ends in a voiceless consonant (other than t(i) or d(i)); -edi- is added if the stem ends in a t(i) or d(i) or a hard consonant other than k, g, ch; -di- is added otherwise (lióvedie is pronounced lióvъdie, though). Past participles are similar, with -d or -t.

Hard weak
lióven 'to love'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present lióve lióver lióveth lióvem lióveth lióvenь
past lióvedie lióvedie lióvedie lióvediem lióvedieth lióvedienь
imperative - lióv! / lióve! lióve er! lióvem! lióveth! lióvenь sí!
present participle lióvend
past participle gelióved

Other examples: maken 'make', lirnen 'learn'

Soft weak
varmien 'to warm'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present indicative varmie varmier varmieth varmiem varmieth varmienь
past varmiedie varmiedie varmiedie varmiediem varmiedieth varmiedienь
imperative - varmь! / varmie! varmie er! varmiem! varmieth! varmienь sí!
present participle varmiend
past participle gevarmied

Other examples: ámlien 'work'; hórien 'hear'; lyrien 'teach'; sażen 'say'; ertalien 'tell, recount'; ránien 'execute, set into motion'; ferránien 'to perform, to commit'; bránien 'burn (transitive)'; lażen 'lay'; vunszen 'wish'

Some verbs with velar/palatal stems, e.g. brinżen, bráchtie, gebrácht 'bring'; bużen, buchtie, gebucht 'buy'; thanczen, tháchtie, gethácht - 'think' form a small subclass of soft stem thematic verbs.

Strong verbs

non-palatalized/palatalized messed up strong verbs a bit.

Strong class 1
bíten 'to bite'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present bíte bítier bítieth bítem bíteth bítenь
past bit bit bit bitem biteth bitenь
imperative - bítь! / bítie! bíte er! bítem! bíteth! bítenь sí!
present participle bítend
past participle gebiten

Also: színen, szin, geszinen 'shine', dríven, driv, gedriven 'act', klíven, kliv, gekliven 'stick, cling', smíten, smit, gesmiten 'kill', vríten, vrit, gevriten 'write', vríthen, vrith, gevrithen 'weave'.

Strong class 2
czúzen 'to choose'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present czúze czúzier czúzieth czúzem czúzeth czúzenь
past czór czór czór czórem czóreth czórenь
imperative - czúzь! / czúzie! czúze er! czúzem! czúzeth! czúzenь sí!
present participle czúzend
past participle geczuren

Also: biúden, biód, gebiuden 'offer, bid', biúgen, bióg, gebiugen 'bow', fliúgen, flióg, gefliugen 'fly', fliún, flió, geflióen 'flee, escape', friúzen, friór, gefriuren 'freeze', liúzen, liór, geliuren 'lose'

Strong class 3
binden 'to tie, to bind'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present binde bindier bindieth bindem bindeth bindenь
past biand biand biand biandem biandeth biandenь
imperative - bindь! / bindie! binde er! bindem! bindeth! bindenь sí!
present participle bindend
past participle gebiunden

Also: bieżénen, bieżán, bieżónen 'begin'; briénen, brián, gebriónen 'burn (intransitive)'; drinken, driank, gedriunken 'drink'; finden, fiand, gefiunden 'find'; grinden, griand, gegriunden 'grind'; riénen, rián, geriónen 'flow, run'; springen, spriang, gespriungen 'jump, burst, explode'; simben, siamb, gesiumben 'sing'; thrimben, thriamb, gethriumben 'to be urgent', thvingen, thviang, gethviungen 'to force'

Strong class 4

In Glommish, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.

biaren 'to carry'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present biare bierier bierieth biarem biareth biarenь
past biár biár biár biárem biárth biárenь
imperative - bierь! / bierie! biare er! biarem! biareth! biarenь sí!
present participle biarend
past participle gebiuren

Also: gebiaren, gebiár, gebiuren 'give birth', briaken, briák, gebriuken 'break', niamen, niám, geniumen 'take', piamen, piám, gepiumen 'come', driasken, driásk, gedriusken 'thresh', stiarven, stiárv, gestiurven 'long (for)', sviaren, sviár, gesviuren 'swear', viarden, viárd, geviurden 'to come about', viarpen, viárp, geviurpen 'throw', biangen, biáng, gebiungen 'to fear' spriaken, spriák, gespriuken 'to speak'

Strong class 5

Strong class 5 merges completely with strong class 6. The only difference is the softness of the initial consonant.

żaven 'to give'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present żave żevier żevieth żavem żaveth żavenь
past żáv żáv żáv żávem żáveth żávenь
imperative - żevь! / żevie! żave er! żavem! żaveth! żavenь sí!
present participle żavend
past participle geżaven

Also: driapen, driáp, gedriapen 'hit', ferżaten, ferżát, ferżaten 'forget', liazen, liáz, geliazen 'read', jaten, ját, gejaten 'eat'. The verb sión, siáv, gesión 'see' is irregular. There are also the j-present verbs bidien, biád, gebiaden 'beg, pray', lieżen, liág, geliagen 'lie'

Strong class 6
graven 'to dig'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present grave gravier gravieth gravem graveth gravenь
past gráv gráv gráv grávem gráveth grávenь
imperative - gravь! / gravie! grave er! gravem! graveth! gravenь sí!
present participle gravend
past participle gegraven

Also: slagen, slág, geslagen 'to beat, to hit', standen, stánd, gestanden 'stand', vaksen, váks, gevaksen 'grow', vasken, vásk, gevasken 'wash'.

Strong class 7

halden, hyld, halden - to hold

fálen, fyl, fálen - to fall

liáten, lít, liáten - to let

sliápen, slíp, sliápen - to sleep

biegrán, biegry, biegrán - to become

Other strongs
ándie 'would like'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
past subjunctive - - ándie - - ándienь

This defective verb from Proto-Germanic *unnaną 'to grant' is only used in the past subjunctive, for example in construction Mir ándie... 'I would like...'.

Preterite-present verbs

viten 'to know'
viten 'to know'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present vyt vyt vyt vitem viteth vitenь
past vistie vistie vistie vistiem vistieth vistienь
imperative - vyt! / vyte! vite er! vitem! viteth! vitenь sí!
present participle vitend
past participle gevist
kónen 'can, be able to'
kónen 'can'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present kán kán kán kónem kóneth kónenь
past kóndie kóndie kóndie kóndiem kóndieth kóndienь

Similarly skólen 'shall' (skóldie 'should'),

thurven 'to have to'
thurven 'to have to'
Tempus ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present tharv tharv tharv thurvem thurveth thurvenь
past thurvdie thurvdie thurvdie thurvdiem thurvdieth thurvdienь
dóren 'dare'
dóren 'dare'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present dóre dórer dóreth dórem dóreth dórenь
past durstie durstie durstie durstiem durstieth durstienь

The present has regularized. The past/conditional tense is still irregular from common use:

  • Fí durstie thú... = How dare you...
  • Ik durstь yncz erbaren thá anfer. = I wouldn't dare reveal the answer.
mogen 'may, have a possibility of'
mogen 'have a possibility of'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present mag mag mag mogem mogeth mogenь
subjunctive moge moger moge mogem mogeth mogenь
past mochtie mochtie mochtie mochtiem mochtieth mochtienь

The subjunctive of mogen can be used for wishes like English may:

  • Moge unsie usre niamen gevíszt mid tróst = May our family be blessed with security
máten 'be permitted to'
máten 'be permitted to'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present mát mát mát mátem máteth mátenь
past mástie mástie mástie mástiem mástieth mástienь
vín 'want'
vín 'want'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present ví ví ví vím víth vínь
past vildie vildie vildie vildiem vildieth vildienь

Other irregular verbs

bión 'be'
bión 'to be'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present jém, (colloquial) kiém, (poetic) czém jér isь sim sith sinь
past vaz vast vaz viárem viáreth viárenь
past subjunctive viárie viárie viárie viáriem viárieth viárienь
imperative - bió! bió er! bióm! bióth! biónь sí!
present participle biónd
past participle geviáren
dán 'do'
dán 'to do'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present dá dár dáth dám dáth dánь
past dié diést dié diém diéth diénь
imperative - dá! dá er! dám! dáth! dánь sí!
present participle dánd
past participle gedán
gán 'go, (future tense auxiliary)'
gán 'to go, (future tense auxiliary)'
tense ik thú er/sí bír úr sí
present gá gár gáth gám gáth gánь
past indicative żang żang żang żangem żangeth żangenь
past subjunctive1 żenie żenie żenie żeniem żenieth żenienь
imperative - gá! gá er! gám! gáth! gánь sí!
present participle gánd
past participle geżangen

1 Grammaticalized as a counterfactual marker.

Also: fán, fiang, gefiangen - to get, to obtain

Syntax

Glommish word order is V2 but is more similar to Icelandic than German. German-style SOV is considered poetic.

Fanь kiém már, ví ik biegrán ne lyriernie.
When I grow up, I want to become a teacher.
(German: Wenn ich groß bin, will ich Lehrerin werden.)

Pronoun objects precede infinitives; nominal objects follow them.

Sí kán fádien the map. / Sí kán jan fádien.
She can feed the boy. / She can feed him.
(German: Sie kann den Jungen ernähren. / Sie kann ihn ernähren.)

Dative pronouns bind more tightly to ditransitive verbs than accusative pronouns:

Ik [[żave jam] jan]. / Ik kán [jan [jam żaven]]. / Ik kán [[jam żaven] the kempiúter].
I'm giving it to him. / I can give it to him. / I can give him the computer.
(German: Ich gebe ihn ihm. / Ich kann ihn ihm geben. / Ich kann ihm den Computer geben.)

In modern Glommish, phrasal verbs are always separated, except in derived agent and verbal nouns. Colloquial Glommish does so even in agent and verbal nouns derived with -erь and -eng, using the borrowed English construction VERB-erь/-eng PREP-erь/-eng (cf. English fixer-upper). Only the second suffix takes declension inflection.

húżen út
'to express'
úthúżeng
'expression'
húżeng-úteng
(colloquial) 'expressing'

Negation

The negative particle is yncz (pronounced /ɪnʃ/ or /ənʃ/) and has the same syntax as nicht in German independent clauses.

Drincz the vater yncz, er isь fúl!
Don't drink the water, it's dirty!

Possession

Usually the genitive is placed after the noun: thá żáve míns fadiers 'my father's gift', but genitive before noun is acceptable too when the noun is definite and animate: míns fadiers żáve.

For "have", in addition to using hán 'to have' like other Germanic languages, one can use an Arabic-influenced construction At mir sinь tvy sunie. "I have two sons."

The construction "et finsь" (there is) can take nominative or accusative objects.

Passive

The passive can be formed by using either piamen 'to come' or niamen 'to take', followed by the past participle of the verb. These have the participles piumen or niumen when used as auxiliaries. The two choices of auxiliary are in free variation.

For example, The káke piám gejaten. or The káke niám gejaten. means 'The cake was eaten.'

Or, one may use the impersonal pronoun sum as the subject. This is used when the object is behind a preposition and hence the verb cannot be passivized.

Simple tenses

Simple present

The simple present denotes habitual actions or generally true facts, like the English simple present. It can also used for future events.

Ik biange mik av jámietiem.
I'm afraid of ants.

Simple past

The simple past is like the English simple past. Except for common short verbs like bión 'to be', hán 'to have' or gán 'to go', and auxiliaries, it's used mostly in New York Glommish, especially by younger speakers.

Imperative

Exactly what it says on the tin.

Compound tenses

Progressive

Progressive tenses denote ongoing actions. An Irish-like construction is used: the auxiliary bión is used (which carries the tense), and the lexical verb becomes at 'at' + infinitive. In formal Glommish, the direct object of the verb takes the genitive.

  • Kiém at jaten the apel. "I'm eating the apple."
  • The hund vaz at thróten jan. "The dog was threatening him."
  • Kiém thárat. "I'm on it."

Perfect

The perfect is used like the English perfect; it uses the auxiliary hán + past participle. In modern Glommish there's a tendency to use the perfect where normative Glommish would use the simple past; this is especially true of Connecticut Glommish.

  • Ik há gejaten the apel. "I have eaten the apple"; in Connecticut Glommish also "I ate the apple"

Future

Clauses

Conjunctions

  • end = and
  • oth = or
  • nierь = but
  • thóch = although
  • fanь = when
  • thá, als (literary) = when
  • ydier... oth... = either... or...
  • niádier... nok... = neither... nor...
  • thiersak = because
  • that = that (can be used with moge + infinitive (present) or mochtie + infinitive (past) for purpose clauses)
    • Ik biesmulte et, that anthere mogen ferstanden. = 'I'm explaining it so that others may understand.'
    • Ik biesmultedie et, that anthere mochtien ferstanden. = 'I explained it so that others might understand.'
  • iv = if (used for conditions that could be true)
  • sadь = if (used for counterfactual conditions)
  • thánь = then
  • nisь = than
  • thus = so, thus
  • als = as
  • viedier X oth Y = Both X and Y
  • sáls = like
  • alsá = thus, therefore

Relative clauses

Glommish relative clauses use the relativizer that, and a resumptive pronoun when the head is in an oblique argument. This resumptive pronoun structure is from Arabic influence.

The thár- words are used for prepositional objects that are inanimates; the personal pronouns are used for animates.

  • Thá piane that ik żáv jar fáde thankedie mir. = 'The woman I gave food to thanked me.' (lit. the woman that I gave her food)
    • Or: Thá piane jar ik żáv fáde thankedie mir.
  • the urd that ik rián thárav or the urd thárav ik rián = 'the place I ran from'

Indirect speech

Indirect speech matches the tense of the clause it's embedded in, unlike in German and like in English (due to past Italian influence). Below, the sentences on the left have the same meaning as their corresponding sentences on the right.

Direct speech

Er sażeth, "Ik há nýn żald."
He says, "I have no money."
Er sażdie, "Ik há nýn żald."
He said, "I have no money."
Er sażeth, "Ik hádie nýn żald."
He says, "I had no money."
Er sażdie, "Ik hádie nýn żald."
He said, "I have no money."'

Indirect speech

Er sażeth that er háth nýn żald.
He says he doesn't have money.
Er sażdie that er hádie nýn żald.
He said he didn't have money.
Er sażeth that er hádie nýn żald.
He says he didn't have money.
Er sażdie that er hádie gehád nýn żald.
He said he hadn't had money.


Inverted "if" clause

Like in German.

Exclamatory inversion

Brá, isь aldfírienьsk ogel!
Boy, is Old Irish complicated!

Numbers

0-10: nól, yn, tvy, thrí, fiór, finf, siaks, siém, acht, nión, tién /no:l, ɨːn, tvɨː, θʲrʲiː, fʲoːr, fʲɪnf, sʲaks, sʲe:m, axt, nʲoːn, tʲeːn/

11-19: ylief, tvalief, thrítién, fiórъtién, finfъtién, siaksъtién, siefъtién, achtién, nióntién /ɨːlʲɪf, tvalʲɪf, θʲrʲiːtʲeːn, fʲoːrtʲeːn, fʲɪnftʲeːn, sʲakstʲeːn, sʲɛftʲeːn, axtʲeːn, nʲoːnʲtʲeːn/

20-90: tvyntich, thrítich, ... achtich, nióntich /tvɨːnʲtʲɪx, etc./

21, 22, ...: yn-án-tvyntich, tvy-án-tvyntich, ...

100: hunderth /hʊndərθ/

Ordinal numbers are formed with -te or -the (weak declension): nólthe, yrste, tvythe, thridie, fiórthe, finfthe, ...

When they do not modify nouns, plural numerals tvy, thrí, fiór, ... have genitive forms tvyer, thríer, fiórer, ..., and dative forms tvy(e)m, thrí(e)m, fiórem, ....

This is how numerals modify plural nouns:

  • Nominative: tvy thinge 'two things'; thá tvy thinge 'the two things'
  • Dative: tvy(e)m thingem; thím tvy(e)m thingem
  • Genitive: tvyer thingen; thier tvy(en) thingen

Vocabulary

A sentence made entirely of Celtic vocabulary (except function words and derivational affixes):

The ódiche map isь at ferbytren the máre ave. = The terrible boy is traversing the big river.

Derivational morphology

  • -ъ- is often used in compound words.
  • bie-: "be-", forms applicatives
  • -bier: '-able'
  • -czen (m): diminutive
    • the kotczen 'kitten' < the kot 'cat'
  • -dám (m): "-dom"
    • kuniengdám = kingdom
    • the júdendám = Judaism
  • end-: 'de-, dis-'
    • endyren: 'dishonor'
  • er-: telic
  • fer-: "for-"
  • fur-: "fore-"
  • -fól: "-ful"
    • fóliefól: "complete" < fólie 'fullness; fill'
  • ge-: intensifies a verb or derives an adverb; collective nouns
    • A false example: geliór ('galore', from Irish go leor via Irish immigration into America)
  • -hyd /-iːd/: -ness, -hood
    • sialvhyd: 'identity'
  • -ig: "-y"; forms adjectives of the form '[adj]-[noun]ed'
    • ynóżig: 'one-eyed' < yn 'one' + óge 'eye'
    • kaldhiertig: 'coldhearted'
  • -iel: forms nouns
    • the lapiel: 'spoon'
    • the katiel: 'kettle'
  • -izen: "-ize", from PGmc -isōną
  • -elen: "-le", German -eln (frequentative verbs)
  • -lóz: "-less"
    • andielóz: 'endless' < the andie 'end'
  • -ling (m): "-ling"
  • -lik: "-ly"; forms adjectives from noun
    • dażlik 'daily' < the dag 'day'
    • vurdlik 'literal' < the vurd 'word'
  • mis-: "mis-"
    • misdiád: "misdeed, misdemeanor"
  • -nes (f; pl. -nesen): forms nouns from verbs
  • -nie: feminine suffix
    • thá lyriernie 'teacher (female)' < the lyrierь 'teacher'
    • thá fuksnie 'vixen' < the fuks 'fox'
  • sam-: equi-, con-, together
  • -sam: "-some"
    • ynsam 'lonely' < yn 'one'
    • gefiársam 'dangerous' < thá gefiár 'danger'
    • vysam 'woeful' < the vy 'woe'
  • -sk: "-ish"
  • -skapie: "-ship", forms collective nouns for groups of people
    • simbskapie = chorus
  • tier-: German zer-
  • -tórь, -tórnie (from Italian -tore)
    • kompozitórь 'composer'
  • tví-: "twi-"
  • un-: "un-" (negation or opposite)
    • thá unróe 'unrest, unease'
  • ur-
    • the urdylь 'decision' < dylь 'part'
  • -eng/-ieng: forms nouns from verbs
    • thá sriáleng 'radiation' < sriálen 'shine, radiate'
    • thá hytieng 'heating' < hytien 'to heat'
  • -eríe = -ery, -erei

Phrasebook

  • Czáv! = hello, goodbye
    • Czáv thir! (informal AND to one person)
    • Czáv ú! (formal OR to more than one person)
  • Gáde murgen/dag/jévend/nachtь! = 'Good morning/afternoon/evening/night!'
  • Vilьpiumen! = 'Welcome!'
  • óntú (formal OR to more than one person) / ónthir (informal AND to one person) = 'please' (lit. may it please you/if it pleases you)
  • Thank! = 'Thank you!'
  • Rió isь mir. = 'I'm sorry.'
  • Rió'sь. = 'Sorry.'
  • Fí hyteth úr? = 'What is your name?'
  • Ik hyte ... = 'My name is ...'
  • Fí isь thín/úrer mád? = 'How are you?' (lit. What is your state?)
  • Fanьs piemier thú? / Fanьs piameth úr? = 'Where are you from?'
  • Ik piame av... = 'I'm from ...'
    • Anglandie. = 'England.'
    • Czíne. = 'China.'
    • Indije. = 'India.'
    • Amerícze. = 'America.'
    • Brazíl. = 'Brazil.'
    • Fírienılandie. (Inherited from PCeltic *Φiweryū) = 'Ireland.'
    • Kamberlandie. = 'Wales.'
  • Sprieczer thú / Spriaketh úr ... = 'Do you speak ...'
    • ... angelьsk? = '... English?'
    • ... thiúsk? = '... German?'
    • ... nitherlandьsk? = '... Dutch?'
    • ... itálьsk? = '... Italian?'
    • ... griéczk? = '... Greek?'
    • ... árebьsk? = '... Arabic?'
    • ... tamierьsk? = '... Tamil?'
  • Já. = 'Yes.'
    • Já, thú mát / úr máteth. = 'Yes, you may.'
  • Nié. = 'No.'
  • Ik spriake glómsьk yncz. = 'I can't speak Glómsьk.'
  • Mát ik ú thúten? = 'May I address you informally (i.e. using thú)?'
  • Isь that santh? = 'Is that true?'
  • Mir davieth/davenь... = 'I like... (a thing)'
  • Ik há (person) lióv = 'I like (person)'
  • Ándie thir / ú... / Ándienь thir / ú... = 'Would you like...'
  • Mir ándie... / mir ándienь... = 'I would like...'
    • Mir ándie 'n glás vatie, óntú. = 'I would like a glass of water, please.'
    • ... 'n dylь bród. 'a slice of bread.'
  • Míne hond isь in varmenь vatrie. = My hand is in warm water.
  • Mín stiúl isь in míner hond. = My pen is in my hand.
  • mín miesniórь/míne fróje = sir/miss (polite way to address strangers)
  • Ik lióve thik. = I love you.
  • Mát ik thik kusien? = Can I kiss you?

Names

Germaniic names are single words or less commonly old Germanic compounds.

Days of the week

  • án miándag = on Monday, miándags = on Mondays
  • tiúsdag = Tuesday
  • vánsdag = Wednesday
  • thunsdag = Thursday
  • frídag = Friday
  • sabsdag = Saturday
  • sóndag = Sunday

Elements

Elements are masculine.

  • vaterstuf = hydrogen
  • heli = helium
  • lithi = lithium
  • beriuli = Be
  • bóre = boron
  • kólstuf = carbon
  • palьstuf = nitrogen
  • súrstuf = oxygen
  • fluóri = fluorine
  • neë = neon
  • natri = sodium
  • magnézi = magnesium
  • alumini = aluminium
  • samedstuf = silicon
  • liúchtiestuf = phosphorus
  • sviál = sulfur
  • chlóri = chlorine
  • arge = argon
  • yriene = copper
  • siulver/silver = silver
  • tin = tin
  • fítgulth = platinum
  • gulth = gold
  • piksiulver/piksilver = mercury (element)
  • bliú = lead

Sample texts

Featured language banner

Thiz rarde vaz ynst gerichtied fur.
This language was once featured.
Thank jazer líkamfólhyder, furvichtlikhyder end ferdavlikhyder geczór sum ta richtien jan fur.
Thanks to its quality (lit. bodyfulness, i.e. concreteness), plausibility (lit. naturalness) and usage features (lit. usefulness), it has been voted as featured.

VENI, VIDI, VICI

Ik piám, ik só, ik siagdie.
I came, I saw, I conquered.

UDHR, Article 1

Álgemynie Útriádeng thier Manьskenriachten
Útglith 1
Ále liúdie sinь geburen frí end javen án vurthie end ánriachtem. Sí sinь bieżávd mid ferstandie end riachtkánie end thurvenь biedríven yn gaszt niávьste im andenь bráthierhyder.
[ˈɑːɫə ˈlʲu:dʲɪ sʲɪnʲ ɣəˈbʊɹən fʲɾʲiː ən ˈjavən ɑ:n ˈvuɾʲtʱʲɪ ən ˈɑ:nrʲæxt̪əm || sʲiː sʲɪnʲ bʲɪˈʒɑːvd mʲɪt̪ fəˈʂt̪and ən ˈrʲæxt̪kɑːnʲɪ | ən ˈt̪ʰʊɹvən bʲɪˈdʲɾʲiːvən iːn ɣaʃt ˈnʲɑːfʲst̪ə jɪn ˈandənʲ ˈbrɑːtʱʲɪɹiːdəɹ]
All human beings are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Schleicher's Fable

The száp end thá ruse

An száp that hádie nyn vóle myr siáv ruse: yn at tiúchen an thunge vage, yn at biaren ne máre lost, end yn at snióm biaren an mánsьk. The száp sażdie thím rusem: "The hiarte isь mir syr, fanь ik sióe an mánsьk at dríven ruse án." Thá ruse sażdienь: "Lusnie, száp, unsь isь the hiarte syr saker thiz hám bír gesióen: an mánsьk, the druchtien, maketh sir varmen klythe út thier szápen vóle, end the száp háth niót vóle myr." Als the száp hóriedie thiz, flióch er thruch thá miédve.

Gettysburg Address

Achtich-sieven járe isь et, after unsьre fadrie gebarenь án thizem jarthedylie ne niúe thióde, getiúszt in fríhyd, end ervíszt thier belóvnes that ále liúdie sinь geskafen javen.

Platenь Furьanfer (Plato's Apology)

Fí úr, lió Athiénierie, háth niumen vichtied at av mínem bievráżeriem, niét ik; sá bielióvsam spriákenь sí, that ik hadie sialv jénachtь ferżaten for ik viérie. Santhes hánь sí áltbieachtied gesażd tvíls ynfat. Under thím miczelem lużem that sí sażdienь sprang út at mik yn in návem:

Siúre 1: Thá Erupneng (tr. Hasien Elь-Chuliédí)

The syntax and diction used are characteristic of the puristic, archaizing Glommish pioneered by Hasien Elь-Chuliédí.

  1. Im namenь thes sambiarendenь, líchtliátigenь Gudes.
  2. Ále ráthь Gudie, áler viáldien Druchtnie,
  3. them sambiarendenь, them líchtliátigenь,
  4. them im dámsdaże uvierriádendenь.
  5. Thik ályn bieyriem bír, end thik ályn bidiem bír um hulpie.
  6. Lydie unsь the sniále viag,
  7. the viag jíner án í thú geniáthe viz, nié jíner án í thín turn geviurden isь, nieth thier jérienden.
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