Modern Phrygian: Difference between revisions

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'''Modern Phrygian''' (Native: ''βρουζ̌ικιά'' /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is modern variety of the [[w:Phrygian_language|Phrygian language]].
'''Modern Phrygian''' (Native: ''βρουζ̌ικιά'' /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the [[w:Phrygian_language|Phrygian language]].
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Modern Phrygian
|name = Modern Phrygian
|nativename = τα βρουζ̌ικιά ξ̌ώσσα
|nativename = ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά <br /> kšósa ta vružigyá <br />
|pronunciation = ta vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a ˈkʃosa
كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
|pronunciation = ˈkʃosa‿d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
Line 26: Line 27:
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
===Etymology===
===Etymology===
Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά ''vružigyá'' < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά ''brugikā́'' (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική ''pʰrygikḗ'').
<!--
<!--
The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  
The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  
Line 44: Line 46:
Intonation
Intonation
-->
-->
===Features===
*PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
*PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
*PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
*Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
*Initial ''w-'' preserved (as ''v-'') except before ''o''.
**New ''w'' also became ''v'', or ''f'' after voiceless consonants (e.g. '''βαίνα''' ''véna'' "hyena" < '''ουαίνα''' ''wéna'' < '''ύαινα''' ''(h)úaina''; '''τφω''' ''tfo'' "two" < '''τουω''' ''two'' < '''τύω''' ''túō'').
*''nt'' > ''nn''
*Early ''Vns'' > ''Vis''
*Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
*All labiovelars became plain velars.
*Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
*Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
*In obstruent clusters (except for ''s'' + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
**Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
**The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
*Assimilation of ''s'' to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
**/ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
**/f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
**Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
*In obstruent + nasal clusters:
**Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
**Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/) and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*In obstruent + /l/ clusters, /l/ becomes /ʃ, ʒ/ and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
*Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
*Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
**Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
**Final ''-n'' > nasalization, but ''-nn'' > ''-n''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 57: Line 91:
-->
-->
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
<!--
'''Note:''' In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.
====Latin orthography====
====Greek orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
=====Alphabet=====
{|style="text-align:center"
{|style="text-align:center"
Line 66: Line 100:
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
|-
| '''A a''' || a || [ä]
| '''Α α''' || άλφα || [ˈalfa]
|-
|-
| '''B b''' || be || [be̞]
| '''Β β''' || βέτα || [ˈved̥a]
|-
|-
| '''C c''' || ce || [t͡ʃe̞]
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
|-
|-
| '''Ç ç''' || çe || [θe̞]
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
|-
| '''D d''' || de || [d̪e̞]
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανο || [ˈemano]
|-
|-
| '''E e''' || e || [e̞]
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
|-
|-
| '''F f''' || efe || [ˈe̞fe̞]
| '''Ζ̌ ζ̌''' || ζ̌έτα || [ˈʒed̥a]
|-
|-
| '''G g''' || ge || [d͡ʒe̞]
| '''Η η''' || έτα || [ˈed̥a]
|-
|-
| '''Gh gh''' || ghen || [ʕe̞n]
| '''Θ θ''' || θέτα || [ˈθed̥a]
|-
|-
| '''H h''' || haca || [ˈhäkä]
| '''Ι ι''' || γιώτα || [ˈʝod̥a]
|}
|}
|
|
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! Letter !! Name !! IPA
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
|-
| '''I i''' || i || [i]
| '''Κ κ''' || κάππα || [ˈkapa]
|-
|-
| '''J j''' || jota || [ˈd͡ʒo̞t̪ä]
| '''Λ λ''' || λάμπδα || [ˈlambða]
|-
|-
| '''K k''' || ka || [kä]
| '''Μ μ''' || μου || [mu]
|-
|-
| '''L l''' || ele || [ˈe̞le̞]
| '''Ν ν''' || νου || [nu]
|-
|-
| '''Lh lh''' || elhe || [ˈe̞ʎe̞]
| '''Ξ ξ''' || ξι || [ksi]
|-
|-
| '''M m''' || eme || [ˈe̞me̞]
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
|-
| '''N n''' || ene || [ˈe̞ne̞]
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανο || [ˈomano]
|-
|-
| '''Nh nh''' || enhe || [ˈe̞ɲe̞]
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
|-
|-
| '''O o''' || o || [o̞]
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
|-
|-
| '''P p''' || pe || [pe̞]
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίγμα || [ˈsiŋma]
|}
|}
|
|
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! Letter !! Name !! IPA
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
|-
| '''Q q''' || cu || [ku]
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίγμα || [ˈʃiŋma]
|-
| '''Τ τ''' || ταυ || [taf]
|-
| '''Υ υ''' || ούψιλο || [ˈupsilο]
|-
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
|-
| '''Χ χ''' || χι || [çi]
|-
|-
| '''R r''' || erre || [ˈe̞re̞]
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
|-
|-
| '''S s''' || esse || [ˈe̞se̞]
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [pʃi]
|-
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
|}
|}
The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| '''T t''' || te || [t̪e̞]
! rowspan="2"|With caron !! colspan=3| As multigraph
|-
|-
| '''U u''' || u || [u]
!before front vowel !! before back vowel !! word-finally or before consonant
|-
|-
| '''V v''' || ve || [ve̞]
| σ̌ || σχ || σχι || σχ
|-
|-
| '''W w''' || we || [we̞]
| ζ̌ || ζγ || ζγι || ζγ
|-
|-
| '''X x''' || exe || [ˈe̞ʃe̞]
| ξ̌ || ξχ || ξχι || ξχ
|-
|-
| '''Y y''' || ye || [je̞]
| ψ̌ || ψχ || ψχι || ψχ
|-
|-
| '''Z z''' || zeta || [ˈðe̞t̪ä]
|}
|}
|}
<!--
====Latin orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
-->
-->
=====Consonants=====
=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [v]
| [v]
|
| '''β'''εχ ['''v'''ex] "six"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| '''γ'''εν ['''ʝ'''en] "yen"
|
|
|-
|-
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x])
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])
| [ŋ]
| [ŋ]
|
| μά'''γ'''κο [ˈma'''ŋ'''go] "mango"; α'''γ'''νός [a'''ŋ'''ˈnos] "pure, chaste"
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, or non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
|-
|-
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| α'''γ'''κινάρα [a'''ɲ'''ɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
|-
|-
| everywhere else
| everywhere else
| [ɣ]
| [ɣ]
|
| '''γ'''αλκός ['''ɣ'''alˈɡ̊os] "copper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 177: Line 227:
| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| ά'''γγ'''ελος [ˈa'''ɲ'''elos] "angel"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [ŋ]
| [ŋ]
|
| ά'''γγ'''ουρο [ˈa'''ŋ'''uro] "cucumber"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 188: Line 238:
| before vowels
| before vowels
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| μα'''γι'''ά [maˈ'''ʝ'''a] "yeast"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 194: Line 244:
| before vowels
| before vowels
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| πάρκκι'''γγι'''ους [ˈparci'''ɲ'''us] "parking (gen.)"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 200: Line 250:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ð]
| [ð]
| '''δ'''ούρα [ˈ'''ð'''ura] "door"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| ει
| ει
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
Line 207: Line 259:
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| ζ
| ζ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [z]
| [z]
|
| '''ζ'''εμελός ['''z'''emeˈlos] "man"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 217: Line 269:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ʒ]
| [ʒ]
|
| βρου'''ζ̌'''ικιά [vru'''ʒ'''iˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| η
| η
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
Line 225: Line 278:
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| θ
| θ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [θ]
| [θ]
| π'''θ'''ουγά [p'''θ'''uˈɣa] "fold"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| ι
| rowspan="3"| ι
| as a semivowel
| preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ɲ]
| μ'''ι'''α [m'''ɲ'''a] "one (f.)"
| <!--⟨ι⟩ remains a vowel in these positions if it has a diaresis and/or an accent (i.e. ⟨ϊ, ί, ΐ⟩).-->
|-
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| τ'''ι'''άρα [ˈt'''ç'''ara] "tiara"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| τρ'''ι'''α [tr'''ʝ'''a] "three (n.)"
| This occurs when ⟨ι⟩ is preceded by a consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨κ⟩, ⟨χ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel.
| [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
|-
|-
| rowspan="6"| κ
| rowspan="7"| κ
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| [ɟ̊]
| [ɟ̊]
|
| κα'''κ'''οί [kaˈ'''ɟ̊'''i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
|
|  
|-
|-
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| [ɡ̊]
| [ɡ̊]
|
| κα'''κ'''ός [kaˈ'''ɡ̊'''os] "bad, harmful"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| after nasal before front vowel
| after nasal before front vowel
| [ɟ]
| [ɟ]
|
| αγ'''κ'''ινάρα [aɲ'''ɟ'''iˈnara] "artichoke"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| after nasal otherwise
| after nasal otherwise
| [ɡ]
| [ɡ]
|
| μάγ'''κ'''ο [ˈmaŋ'''ɡ'''o] "mango"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| ά'''κ'''δος [ˈa'''ɡ'''ðos] "sorrow"
|
|-
|-
| everywhere else before front vowel
| otherwise before front vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| '''κ'''ιττάπ ['''c'''iˈtab̥] "book"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| everywhere else
| [k]
| [k]
|
| '''κ'''ακός ['''k'''aˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| δί'''κκ'''οι [ˈði'''c'''i] "discs"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [k]
| [k]
|
| Μά'''κκ'''α [ˈma'''k'''a] "Makkah"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| [ɟ̊]
| [ɟ̊]
|
| βρουζ̌ι'''κι'''ά [vruʒiˈ'''ɟ̊'''a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal before a vowel
| after nasal before a vowel
| [ɟ]
| [ɟ]
|
| άγ'''κι'''ο [ˈaɲ'''ɟ'''o] "cup"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise before a vowel
| otherwise before a vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| '''κι'''ουριακό ['''c'''urʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| ί'''κκι'''ο [ˈi'''c'''o] "horse"
|  
|  
|-
| κζ
| everywhere
| [ɡz]
|
|
|-
| κζ̌
| everywhere
| [ɡʒ]
|
|
|-
|-
| λ(λ)
| λ(λ)
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [l]
| [l]
|
| ά'''λ'''φα [ˈa'''l'''fa] "alpha"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [ʎ]
| [ʎ]
|
| ζέ'''λλι'''α [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 330: Line 385:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [m]
| [m]
|
| ζε'''μ'''ελός [ze'''m'''eˈlos] "man"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 336: Line 391:
| non-final
| non-final
| [n]
| [n]
|
| ό'''ν'''ομαν [ˈo'''n'''omã] "name"
|
|
|-
|-
| final
| final
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
|
| όνομ'''αν''' [ˈonom'''ã'''] "name"
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
|-
|-
Line 347: Line 402:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [n]
| [n]
|
| μά'''νν'''α [ˈma'''n'''a] "manna"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 353: Line 408:
| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| χαλαππέ'''νι'''ο [xalaˈpe'''ɲ'''o] "jalapeño"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 359: Line 414:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ks]
| [ks]
|
| '''ξ'''ούλο [ˈ'''ks'''ulo] "tree"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 365: Line 420:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| [kʃ]
|
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "congregational mosque"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| οι
| οι
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
Line 373: Line 429:
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| ου
| ου
| after a consonant or word-initial and before a vowel
| word-initial before a vowel or between vowels
| [w]
| [w]
|  
| '''Ου'''ίντζορ [ˈ'''w'''indzor] "Windsor"
|
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-->
|-
|-
| rowspan="3"| π
| rowspan="4"| π
| after vowel or liquid
| after vowel or liquid
| [b̥]
| [b̥]
|
| κιττά'''π''' [ciˈta'''b̥'''] "book"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal
| after nasal
| [b]
| [b]
| κάμ'''π'''α [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"
|
|
|
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| '''π'''δέλλα [ˈ'''b'''ðela] "leech"
|
|
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [p]
| [p]
|
| '''π'''ρώτος [ˈ'''p'''rod̥os] "first"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 400: Line 460:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [p]
| [p]
|
| κά'''ππ'''αρις [ˈka'''p'''aris] "caper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| πζ
| ρ(ρ)
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [bz]
|
|
|-
| πζ̌
| everywhere
| [bʒ]
|
|
|-
| ρ(ρ)
| [r ~ ɾ]
| [r ~ ɾ]
|
| κάππα'''ρ'''ις [ˈkapa'''r'''is] "caper"
| In free variation.
| In free variation.
|-
|-
| σ(σ)
| σ(σ)
| everywhere
| [s]
| [s]
|
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| σ̌(σ̌)
| everywhere
| [ʃ]
| '''σ̌'''αχ ['''ʃ'''ax] "shah"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 428: Line 484:
| after vowel or liquid
| after vowel or liquid
| [d̥]
| [d̥]
|
| πρώ'''τ'''ος [ˈpro'''d̥'''os] "first"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [d]
| [d]
|
| άν'''τ'''ρας [ˈan'''d'''ras] "(adult) man"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [t]
| [t]
|
| '''τ'''ος ['''t'''os] "the"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 445: Line 500:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [t]
| [t]
|
| ά'''ττ'''α [ˈa'''t'''a] "father"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 451: Line 506:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ts]
| [ts]
|
| πί'''τσ'''α [ˈpi'''ts'''a] "pizza"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 457: Line 512:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| [tʃ]
|
| '''τσ̌'''έττερες [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| τζ
| τζ
| everywhere
|  
| [dz]
| [dz]
|
| '''τζ'''άγγα [ˈ'''dz'''aŋɡa] "slipper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| τζ̌
| τζ̌
| everywhere
|  
| [dʒ]
| [dʒ]
|
| άν'''τζ̌'''αρος [ˈan'''dʒ'''aros] "messenger"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| rowspan="4" | υ
| rowspan="3" | υ
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [ʝ]
| [m]
| ενε'''υ'''νάνα [ene'''m'''ˈnana] "ninety"
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [m]
|
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [f]
| [f]
|
| τα'''υ''' [ta'''f'''] "tau"
|
|
|-
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ otherwise
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise
| [v]
| [v]
|
| με'''ύ'''ος [ˈme'''v'''os] "mine"
|
|
|-
|-
| φ
| φ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [t]
| [f]
|
| '''φ'''υσικά ['''f'''isiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 502: Line 552:
| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [ç]
| [ç]
|
| '''χ'''εμικιός ['''ç'''emiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [x]
| [x]
|
| '''χ'''άλβα [ˈ'''x'''alva] "halwa"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 513: Line 563:
| before vowel
| before vowel
| [ç]
| [ç]
|
| '''χι'''ούμορ [ˈ'''ç'''umor] "humour"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 519: Line 569:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ps]
| [ps]
|
| '''ψ'''ουγά ['''ps'''uˈɣa] "mind"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 525: Line 575:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [pʃ]
| [pʃ]
|
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|  
|  
|-
|-
|}
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.-->
=====Vowels=====
=====Vowels=====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 539: Line 593:
| α
| α
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
|  
| '''α'''κρός ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
|-
| ε
| ε
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" |[e]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" |[e]
|  
| β'''έ'''κος [ˈv'''e'''ɡ̊os] "bread"
| rowspan="2" | Actually closer to [e̞].
| rowspan="2" | Actually closer to [e̞].
|-
|-
| αι
| αι
|
| β'''αί'''να [ˈv'''e'''na] "hyena"
|-
|-
| ι
| ι
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6"|[i]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6"|[i]
|
| μ'''ι'''δός [m'''i'''ˈðos] "wage"
|
|
|-
|-
| η
| η
|
| μαθ'''η'''ματικά [maθ'''i'''mad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"
|  
| In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. ''τρης'' [tres] (modern ''τρες'') "three".
|-
|-
| υ
| υ
|
| φ'''υ'''σικά [f'''i'''siˈɡ̊a]
|  
| In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. ''κύγνος'' (modern ''κούγνος'') /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
|-
|-
| ει
| ει
| '''εί'''ρος [ˈ'''i'''ros] "child"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| οι
| οι
| είρ'''οι''' [ˈir'''i'''] "children"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| υι
| υι
|
| β'''υί'''αλος [ˈv'''i'''los] "leaf"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| ο
| ο
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[o]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[o]
|
| '''ό'''ν'''ο'''μαν [ˈ'''o'''n'''o'''mã] "name"
| rowspan="2"| Actually closer to [o̞].
| rowspan="2"| Actually closer to [o̞].
|-
|-
| ω
| ω
|
| πρ'''ώ'''τος [ˈpr'''o'''d̥os] "first"
|-
|-
| ου
| ου
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| κ'''ού'''ρα [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
| Often written ȣ in older texts.
|}
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
The following falling diphthongs are possible:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Diphthongs
|-
! offglide→ <br />nucleus↓
! ι /i/ !! η /i/ !! υ /i/ !! ου /u/
|-
! α /a/
| αϊ (άι) || αη || αϋ (άυ) || αου
|-
! ε /e/
| εϊ (έι) || εη || εϋ (έυ) || εου
|-
! ο /o/
| οϊ (όι) || οη || οϋ (όυ) || οου
|-
! ω /o/
| ωι || ωη || ωυ || ωου
|-
|}
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.
When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.
A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.
A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.
=====Stress=====
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent. Monosyllabic words do not indicate stress.
When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.
When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
<!--
====Latin orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
<!--
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Α α''' || άλφα || [ˈalfa]
|-
| '''Β β''' || βέτα || [ˈved̥a]
|-
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
|-
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανου || [ˈemanu]
|-
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
|-
| '''Ζ̌ ζ̌''' || ζ̌έτα || [ˈʒed̥a]
|-
| '''Η η''' || έτα || [ˈed̥a]
|-
| '''Θ θ''' || θέτα || [ˈθed̥a]
|-
| '''Ι ι''' || γιώτα || [ˈʝod̥a]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Κ κ''' || κάππα || [ˈkapa]
|-
| '''Λ λ''' || λάμπδα || [ˈlambða]
|-
| '''Μ μ''' || μου || [mu]
|-
| '''Ν ν''' || νου || [nu]
|-
| '''Ξ ξ''' || ξι || [ksi]
|-
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανου || [ˈomanu]
|-
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
|-
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
|-
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίγμα || [ˈsiŋma]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίγμα || [ˈʃiŋma]
|-
| '''Τ τ''' || ταυ || [taf]
|-
| '''Υ υ''' || ούψιλο || [ˈupsilο]
|-
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
|-
| '''Χ χ''' || χι || [çi]
|-
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
|-
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [pʃi]
|-
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
|}
|}
The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|With caron !! colspan=3| As multigraph
|-
!before front vowel !! before back vowel !! word-finally or before consonant
|-
| σ̌ || σχ || σχι || σχ
|-
| ζ̌ || ζγ || ζγι || ζγ
|-
| ξ̌ || ξχ || ξχι || ξχ
|-
| ψ̌ || ψχ || ψχι || ψχ
|-
|}
--!>
=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Consonants'''
! '''Letter'''
! '''Context'''
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! '''Examples'''
! '''Remarks'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''b'''
| after vowel or liquid
| [b̥]
| kitá'''b''' [ciˈta'''b̥'''] "book"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| kám'''b'''a [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"; e'''b'''ďamás [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
|
|-
| c
| everywhere
| [ts]
| pí'''c'''a [ˈpi'''ts'''a] "pizza"
|
|-
| č
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| '''č'''éteres [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | d
| after vowel or liquid
| [d̥]
| pró'''d'''os [ˈpro'''d̥'''os] "first"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [d]
| án'''d'''ras [ˈan'''d'''ras] "(adult) man"
|
|-
| ď
| everywhere
| [ð]
| '''ď'''úra [ˈ'''ð'''ura] "door"
|
|-
<!--
| v
| everywhere
| [v]
| '''β'''εχ ['''v'''ex] "six"
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| γ
| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| [ʝ]
| '''γ'''εν ['''ʝ'''en] "yen"
|
|-
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])
| [ŋ]
| μά'''γ'''κο [ˈma'''ŋ'''go] "mango"; α'''γ'''νός [a'''ŋ'''ˈnos] "pure, chaste"
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
|-
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| [ɲ]
| α'''γ'''κινάρα [a'''ɲ'''ɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
|-
| everywhere else
| [ɣ]
| '''γ'''αλκός ['''ɣ'''alˈɡ̊os] "copper"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | γγ
| before front vowel
| [ɲ]
| ά'''γγ'''ελος [ˈa'''ɲ'''elos] "angel"
|
|-
| elsewhere
| [ŋ]
| ά'''γγ'''ουρο [ˈa'''ŋ'''uro] "cucumber"
|
|-
| γι
| before vowels
| [ʝ]
| μα'''γι'''ά [maˈ'''ʝ'''a] "yeast"
|
|-
| γγι
| before vowels
| [ɲ]
| πάρκκι'''γγι'''ους [ˈparci'''ɲ'''us] "parking (gen.)"
|
|-
<!--
| ει
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|  
|  
|
|
|}
|-
| ζ
| everywhere
| [z]
| '''ζ'''εμελός ['''z'''emeˈlos] "man"
|
|-
| ζ̌
| everywhere
| [ʒ]
| βρου'''ζ̌'''ικιά [vru'''ʒ'''iˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
|
|-
<!--
<!--
{| class="wikitable"
| η
|+ Vowel letters in diphthongs
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|-
| θ
| everywhere
| [θ]
| π'''θ'''ουγά [p'''θ'''uˈɣa] "fold"
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| ι
| preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ɲ]
| μ'''ι'''α [m'''ɲ'''a] "one (f.)"
| <!--⟨ι⟩ remains a vowel in these positions if it has a diaresis and/or an accent (i.e. ⟨ϊ, ί, ΐ⟩).
|-
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| ιμάτ'''ι'''ο [iˈmat'''ç'''o] "cloak"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ʝ]
| τρ'''ι'''α [tr'''ʝ'''a] "three (n.)"
| [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
|-
| rowspan="7"| κ
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| [ɟ̊]
| κα'''κ'''οί [kaˈ'''ɟ̊'''i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
|
|-
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| [ɡ̊]
| κα'''κ'''ός [kaˈ'''ɡ̊'''os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
| after nasal before front vowel
| [ɟ]
| αγ'''κ'''ινάρα [aɲ'''ɟ'''iˈnara] "artichoke"
|
|-
| after nasal otherwise
| [ɡ]
| μάγ'''κ'''ο [ˈmaŋ'''ɡ'''o] "mango"
|
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| ί'''κ'''δις [ˈi'''ɡ'''ðis] "mortar"
|
|-
| otherwise before front vowel
| [c]
| '''κ'''ιττάπ ['''c'''iˈtab̥] "book"
|
|-
| everywhere else
| [k]
| '''κ'''ακός ['''k'''aˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Letter
| rowspan="2" | κκ
![[Help:IPA|IPA]] !! Examples !! Remarks
| before front vowel
| [c]
| δί'''κκ'''οι [ˈði'''c'''i] "discs"
|  
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | In rising diphthongs
| otherwise
| [k]
| Μά'''κκ'''α [ˈma'''k'''a] "Makkah"
|  
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| rowspan="3"| κι
| {{angbr|i}} before a vowel
| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| [ɟ̊]
| βρουζ̌ι'''κι'''ά [vruʒiˈ'''ɟ̊'''a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
| after nasal before a vowel
| [ɟ]
| άγ'''κι'''ο [ˈaɲ'''ɟ'''o] "cup"
|
|-
| otherwise before a vowel
| [c]
| '''κι'''ουριακό ['''c'''urʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
|
|-
| κκι
| before a vowel
| [c]
| ί'''κκι'''ο [ˈi'''c'''o] "horse"
|
|-
| λ(λ)
| everywhere
| [l]
| ά'''λ'''φα [ˈa'''l'''fa] "alpha"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''u'''
| λ(λ)ι
| {{angbr|u}} before a vowel (but silent in {{angbr|qu}} and {{angbr|gu}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
| before a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [ʎ]
| ζέ'''λλι'''α [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
|
|
|-
| μ(μ)
| everywhere
| [m]
| ζε'''μ'''ελός [ze'''m'''eˈlos] "man"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''ü'''
| rowspan="2"| ν
| {{angbr|ü}} before a vowel (only used in {{angbr|qü}} and {{angbr|gü}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
| non-final
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [n]
| ό'''ν'''ομαν [ˈo'''n'''omã] "name"
|
|
|-
| final
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
| όνομ'''αν''' [ˈonom'''ã'''] "name"
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
|-
| νν
| everywhere
| [n]
| μά'''νν'''α [ˈma'''n'''a] "manna"
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | In falling diphthongs
| ν(ν)ι
| before a vowel
| [ɲ]
| χαλαππέ'''νι'''ο [xalaˈpe'''ɲ'''o] "jalapeño"
|
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| ξ
| {{angbr|i}} after a vowel
| everywhere
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| [ks]
| '''ξ'''ούλο [ˈ'''ks'''ulo] "tree"
|
|
|-
| ξ̌
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
|
|
|-
|-
| '''y'''
<!--
| {{angbr|y}} after a vowel
| οι
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|
| Almost always word-final. ''-iy'' is pronounced [i].
|-
|-
|'''u'''
| ου
| {{angbr|u}} after a vowel
| word-initial before a vowel or between vowels
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [w]
| '''Ου'''ίντζορ [ˈ'''w'''indzor] "Windsor"
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-
|-
| otherwise
| [p]
| '''π'''ρώτος [ˈ'''p'''rod̥os] "first"
|
|-
| ππ
| everywhere
| [p]
| κά'''ππ'''αρις [ˈka'''p'''aris] "caper"
|
|-
| ρ(ρ)
| everywhere
| [r ~ ɾ]
| κάππα'''ρ'''ις [ˈkapa'''r'''is] "caper"
| In free variation.
|-
| σ(σ)
| everywhere
| [s]
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [t]
| '''τ'''ος ['''t'''os] "the"
|
|-
| ττ
| everywhere
| [t]
| ά'''ττ'''α [ˈa'''t'''a] "father"
|
|-
 
| τζ
|
| [dz]
| '''τζ'''αν'''τζ'''άρα ['''dz'''anˈ'''dz'''ara] "mosquito"
|
|-
| τζ̌
|
| [dʒ]
| άν'''τζ̌'''αρος [ˈan'''dʒ'''aros] "messenger"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | υ
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [m]
| ενε'''υ'''νάνα [ene'''m'''ˈnana] "ninety"
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [f]
| τα'''υ''' [ta'''f'''] "tau"
|
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise
| [v]
| με'''ύ'''ος [ˈme'''v'''os] "mine"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''w'''
| φ
| {{angbr|w}} after a vowel
| everywhere
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [f]
| '''φ'''υσικά ['''f'''isiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| χ
| before front vowel
| [ç]
| '''χ'''εμικιός ['''ç'''emiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [x]
| '''χ'''άλβα [ˈ'''x'''alva] "halwa"
|
|-
| χι
| before vowel
| [ç]
| '''χι'''ούμορ [ˈ'''ç'''umor] "humour"
|
|-
| ψ
| everywhere
| [ps]
| '''ψ'''ουγά ['''ps'''uˈɣa] "mind"
|
|-
|ψ̌
| everywhere
| [pʃ]
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|
|---!>
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.--!>
 
=====Vowels=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Monophthong Vowels
|-
! Letter
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! Examples !! Remarks
|-
| a
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| '''a'''grós ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
| e
| style="text-align:center;" | [e]
| v'''é'''gos [ˈv'''e'''ɡ̊os] "bread"; v'''é'''na [ˈv'''e'''na] "hyena"
| Actually closer to [e̞].
|-
| ι
| style="text-align:center;"|[i]
| m'''i'''ďós [m'''i'''ˈðos] "wage"; mať'''i'''mad'''i'''gá [maθ'''i'''mad̥'''i'''ˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"; f'''i'''s'''i'''gá [f'''i'''s'''i'''ˈɡ̊a]; '''í'''r'''i''' [ˈ'''i'''r'''i'''] "children"; m'''í'''as'''i'''s [ˈm'''i'''as'''i'''s] "myiasis"
|
|-
| ο
| style="text-align:center;"|[o]
| '''ó'''n'''o'''man [ˈ'''o'''n'''o'''mã] "name"; pr'''ó'''d'''o'''s [ˈpr'''o'''d̥'''o'''s] "first"
| Actually closer to [o̞].
|-
| u
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| k'''ú'''ra [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
|
|
| Almost always word-final. ''-uw'' is pronounced [w].
|}
|}
'''Note:'''
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.


''iu'' and ''ui'' are ambiguous, since they may either be used for rising diphthongs (/ju/ and /wi/ respectively) or falling diphthongs (/iw/ and /uj/ respectively). In most cases, they represent rising diphthongs unless followed by ''t''. ''iw'' and ''uy'' always represent falling diphthongs.
The following falling diphthongs are possible: ''ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou''.
 
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.


=====Stress=====
=====Stress=====
Stress in a word can be determined from the way it is written via the following rules:
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.
*If there is any vowel with an acute accent, that vowel is stressed.
 
*If there is no vowel with an acute accent:
When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).-->
**The penultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in a vowel, vowel + ''-n'', or vowel + ''-s''.
**The ultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in any consonant other than ''-n'' or ''-s''.
*Note that:
**Diphthongs are always treated as one syllable.
**''iV'' and ''uV'' (where ''V'' represents any vowel other than ''i'' or ''u'') are treated as diphthongs, and therefore count as one syllable.
***The exception to this is if the ''i'' or ''u'' has an accent. However, this is rare since words that would have ''íV'' and ''úV'' are usually written as ''iyV'' and ''uwV''.
**Final ''-y'' and ''-w'' are treated as consonants, and they shift the stress to the final syllable.
-->


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
<!--
====Stop and affricate consonants====
The following consonant sets exist:
{| class="wikitable"
! Set !! Unvoiced 1 !! Unvoiced 2 !! Voiced 1 !! Voiced 2
|-
! Bilabial stops
| π¹ || ππ || π² || π³
|-
! Dental stops
| τ¹ || ττ || τ² || τ³
|-
! Alveolar affricates
| τσ¹ || τσ² || τζ² || τζ³
|-
! Post-alveolar affricates
| τσ̌¹ || τσ̌² || τζ̌² || τζ̌³
|-
! Palatal stops
| κ(ι)¹ || κκ(ι) || κ(ι)² || κ(ι)³
|-
! Velar stops
| κ¹ || κκ || κ² || κ³
|-
|}
'''Conditions:'''
¹ Word-initial.
² Between vowels; after liquids before vowels.
³ After nasals.
These sets are pronounced as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Type 1 !! Standard dialect !! Alternate dialect
|-
! Voiceless 1
| unvoiced (e.g. [t]) || unvoiced (e.g. [t])
|-
! Voiceless 2
| unvoiced (e.g. [t]) || aspirated (e.g. [tʰ])
|-
! Voiced 1
| partially voiced (e.g. [d̥]) || unvoiced (e.g. [t])
|-
! Voiced 2
| fully voiced (e.g. [d]) || fully voiced (e.g. [d]) with weakening of preceding nasal
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
*"Voiced 1" is not considered a separate phoneme. In the standard dialect, it is considered the same phoneme as "voiced 2". In the alternate dialect, it is considered the same phoneme as "voiceless 1".
*In the case of "voiced 2" (i.e. post-nasal), the preceding nasal is partly or completely dropped in the alternate dialect. In other words, standard [nd] is pronounced [ⁿd] or even [d]. In the standard dialect, the nasal is fully pronounced.
*When a postclitic beginning in a "voiceless 1" consonant is preceded by a nasal, the consonant becomes "voiced 2" (but this is not indicated in writing).
-->


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 670: Line 1,273:
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
===Phonological history===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.
====Cases====
Nouns are declined for four cases:
*'''Nominative'''
*'''Genitive'''
*'''Oblique'''
*'''Vocative'''
The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.
====Stress====
Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.
There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.
====Citation form====
The citation form for most nouns is: ''nominative singular, genitive singular''.
====First declension (a-stems)====
First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ First declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !! colspan="3"| Plural
|-
! M !! F !! N !! M !! F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ας || colspan="2" | -α || colspan="2"| -αι || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3" | -ας || colspan="3" | -αν
|-
! Oblique
| colspan="2" | -αν || -α || colspan="2"|-αις || -α
|-
! Vocative
| colspan="3" | -α || colspan="2"|-αι || -α
|}
====Second declension (o-stems)====
Feminine second declension nouns are rare.
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Second declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ος || -ο || -οι || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ουν || -ο || -οις || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ε || -ο || -οι || -α
|-
|}
====Third declension====
There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.
=====Consonant stems=====
Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in ''-ας'' (masc./fem.) or ''-α'' (neut.).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -αν || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|}
=====i-stems=====
Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ i-stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ιους || colspan="2" | -ιουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ιν || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
! Vocative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
|}
=====Mixed stems=====
Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but ''-ι-'' is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mixed stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ιν || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|}
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ First and second person pronouns
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2" | Nominative !! colspan="2"| Genitive !! colspan="2"| Oblique !! rowspan="2" | Possessive
|-
! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak
|-
! 1S
| εγιού || γιου || εμεύ || μευ ||εμέ || με || μευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2S
| ετού || του || ετεύ || τευ ||ετέ || τε || τευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 1P
| ενές || νες || ενιούν || νω ||ενές || νω || νωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2P
| εβές || βες || εβιούν || βω ||εβές || βω || βωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
|}
Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:
*'''Strong:''' απθός, -ά, -ό
*'''Weak:''' θος, -α, -ο
*'''Reflexive:''' βαπθός, -ά, -ό
====Definite article/pronoun====
Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: ''τος, τα, το''.
Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.
====Indefinite pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''κ-''.
====Relative pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''γι-''.
====Demonstrative pronouns====
*'''Near demonstrative:''' σεμός, -ά, -ό
**First/second declension
*'''Middle demonstrative:''' σις, σα, σι, σους
**First/third declension (mixed stem)
*'''Far demonstrative:''' τόττος, -α, -ο
**First/second declension
These can be used with a following noun or on their own.
===Adjectives===
====First/second declension====
Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.
This is the most common class of adjectives.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*πρώτος, -α, -ο "first"
====First/third declension====
Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους "one"
*αίδονας (αίδων), αίδοισα, αίδον, αίδονους "burning"
====First declension====
Declined as first declension in all genders.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine/neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*μέκας, μέκα, μέκας "big"
====Second declension====
Declined as second declension in all genders.
This class of adjectives is rare.
The citation form is ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.
====Third declension====
Declined as third declension in all genders.
The citation form is normally ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''
The exceptions are the numerals ''τρες, τρια'' "three" and ''τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα'' "four", which do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are ''masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural''.
====Usage====
Adjectives can be used in the following ways:
#'''Attributive:''' In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
#'''Predicative:''' Used as a predicate.
#'''Substantive:''' Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.
<!--Note: I made the definite article, as well as adjectives, follow the nouns they govern. I actually have some justification for this now, both by extension/analogy from Ancient Greek usage (e.g. βασιλεὺς ὁ κακός) and by the fact that I allowed the definite article to act as a pronoun (meaning that, at least originally, substantive adjectives would make more sense to precede it rather than follow it)-->
===Verbs===
====Notes on verb conjugation====
#Accent is recessive except in forms with fixed accent, which is indicated with an accent sign in the ending.
#In vowel initial verbs, the past prefix ε- changes form predictably based on the initial vowel as follows:
#*ε- + ε- > α-;
#*ε- is dropped before other front vowels (ι-, ει-, οι-, αι-, η-, υ-, υι-);
#*ε- > γι- before back vowels (α-, ο-, ω-, ου-).
#The future forms are also used as present subjunctive/jussive.
====Principle parts and stems====
===Adverbs===
===Particles===
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Line 914: Line 1,757:
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
-->
-->
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Phrygian numerals
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Collective
|-
! 0
| ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματέν, ματένους || ματενάνος, -α, -ο || — || —
|-
! 1
|  ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους || πρώτος, -α, -ο || άπαχ || μονάς, -άτους
|-
! 2
| τφω || τφέτερος, -α, -ο || τφις || τφάς, -άτους
|-
! 3
| τρες, τρια || τρίτος, -α, -ο || τρις || τριας, -άτους
|-
! 4
| τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα || τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετράς, -άτους
|-
! 5
| πίντζ̌ε || πίντος, -α, -ο || πίγκιάτζ̌ις || πιντάς, -άτους
|-
! 6
| βεχ || βέκθος, -α, -ο || βεξάτζ̌ις || βεκθάς, -άτους
|-
! 7
| επθάν || έπθαμος, -α, -ο || εμμάτζ̌ις || επθαμάς, -άτους
|-
! 8
| οκθών || όκθουος, -α, -ο || οκθώτζ̌ις || οκθουάς, -άτους
|-
! 9
| ενιάν || ένιανος, -α, -ο || ενευνάτζ̌ις || ενιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 10
| τέκαν || τέκανος, -α, -ο || τεκανάτζ̌ις || τεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 11
| ένεκαν || ενέκανος, -α, -ο || ενεκανάτζ̌ις || ενεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 12
| τφώτεκαν || τφωτέκανος, -α, -ο || τφωτεκανάτζ̌ις || τφωτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 13
| τρίτεκαν || τριτέκανος, -α, -ο || τριτεκανάτζ̌ις || τριτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 14
| τσ̌ετέρτεκαν || τσ̌ετερτέκανος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετερτεκανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετερτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 15
| πίντεκαν || πιντέκανος, -α, -ο || πιντεκανάτζ̌ις || πιντεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 16
| βέκθεκαν || βεκθέκανος, -α, -ο || βεκθεκανάτζ̌ις || βεκθεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 17
| επθάνεκαν || επθανέκανος, -α, -ο || επθανεκανάτζ̌ις || επθανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 18
| οκθώνεκαν|| οκθωνέκανος, -α, -ο || οκθωνεκανάτζ̌ις || οκθωνεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 19
| ενιάνεκαν|| ενιανέκανος, -α, -ο || ενιανεκανάτζ̌ις || ενιανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 20
| βίκιανι || βικιοττός, -ά, -ό || βικιανιάτζ̌ις || βικιανιάς, -άτους
|-
! 30
| τριάνα || τριαττός, -ά, -ό || τριανάτζ̌ις || τριανάς, -άτους
|-
! 40
| τσ̌ετράνα || τσ̌ετραττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρανάς, -άτους
|-
! 50
| πιγκιάνα || πιγκιαττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιανάτζ̌ις || πιγκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 60
| βεξάνα || βεξαττός, -ά, -ό || βεξανάτζ̌ις || βεξανάς, -άτους
|-
! 70
| εμμάνα || εμματτός, -ά, -ό || εμμανάτζ̌ις || εμμανάς, -άτους
|-
! 80
| οκθώνα || οκθωττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωνάτζ̌ις || οκθωνάς, -άτους
|-
! 90
| ενευνάνα || ενευναττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνανάτζ̌ις || ενευνανάς, -άτους
|-
! 100
| εκανόυν || εκανοττός, -ά, -ό  || εκανάτζ̌ις || εκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 200
| τφακιάνιοι || τφακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφακιανιάτζ̌ις || τφακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 300
| τριακιάνιοι || τριακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τριακιανιάτζ̌ις || τριακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 400
| τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι || τσ̌ετρακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρακιανιάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 500
| πιγκιακιάνιοι || πιγκιακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιακιανιάτζ̌ις || πιγκιακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 600
| βεξακιάνιοι || βεξακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || βεξακιανιάτζ̌ις || βεξακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 700
| εμμακιάνιοι || εμμακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || εμμακιανιάτζ̌ις || εμμακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 800
| οκθωκιάνιοι || οκθωκιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωκιανιάτζ̌ις || οκθωκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 900
| ενευνακιάνιοι || ενευνακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνακιανιάτζ̌ις || ενευνακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 1000
| ζέλλια || ζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || ζελλιάτζ̌ις || ζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
! 2000
| τφωζέλλιαι || τφωζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφωζελλιάτζ̌ις || τφωζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
|}
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
Line 921: Line 1,889:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Ώρα τα''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Γρόνοι τοι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| spring || βιαρ, βιάρους
|-
| summer || ζ̌ερός, -ιούς
|-
| fall || οπώρα, -ας
|-
| winter || ζ̌ειμούν, -ους
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Μενές τοι κρεκοριανόι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| January || Γιανβάριος, -ιους
|-
| February || Φερβάριος, -ιους
|-
| March || Μάρτσ̌ος, -ιους
|-
| April || Απρίλιος, -ιους
|-
| May || Μάγιος, -ους
|-
| June || Γιούνιος, -ους
|-
| July || Γιούλιος, -ους
|-
| August || Άπγουττος, -ους
|-
| September || Σεπθέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| October || Οκθώβριος, -ιους
|-
| November || Νουέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| December || Δετζ̌έμπριος, -ιους
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Άμανα τα πδομάτους τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| Sunday || Κοιρακά
|-
| Monday || Τφέτερα
|-
| Tuesday || Τρίτα
|-
| Wednesday || Τσ̌ετέρτα
|-
| Thursday || Πίντα
|-
| Friday || Τζ̌ούμγα
|-
| Saturday || Σάβατο
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Μέλοι τοι άμανους τους''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| dawn || απγά, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| morning || βώς, βώβους ''(f.)''
|-
| noon || μεσαμπριό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| afternoon || τείλα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| evening || βεππέρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| dusk || τούτις, τούτιους ''(f.)''
|-
| night || νουκθάς (νουχ), νουκθούς ''(f.)''
|-
| midnight || μεσανουξ̌ά, -ς ''(f.)''
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Μονάτους ται ώρας τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| second || τφέτερο, -ους ''(n.)''
|-
| minute || λεπθό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| hour || ώρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| week || πδομάς, -άτους ''(f.)''
|-
| month || μένας (μεις), μενούς ''(m.)''
|-
| season || γρόνος, -ους ''(m.)''
|-
| year || βέτος, βείτους ''(n.)''
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Επίβρεμανα τα ωραίκια''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| now || νουν
|-
| then || άρα; τότζ̌ε
|-
| recently, a short time ago || άρτι
|-
| earlier || προς
|-
| soon, shortly ||
|-
| later || ψές
|-
| always || αει; πάντοτζ̌ε
|-
| often || πυιλάτζ̌ις
|-
| sometimes || κότζ̌ε
|-
| rarely || παύροτζ̌ε
|-
| never || μέκοτζ̌ε
|-
| ever || κώκοτζ̌ε
|-
| still, yet || έτι; κω
|-
| already ||
|-
| today || σάμαρουν
|-
| tonight || σινούκθουν
|-
| yesterday || κδες
|-
| last night ||
|-
| tomorrow || αύριουν
|-
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
| this year || σέτες
|-
| last year || πέρουτι
|-
| next year ||
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
Line 939: Line 2,079:
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Graeco-Phrygian]]
[[Category:Graeco-Phrygian_languages]]

Latest revision as of 03:45, 18 November 2024

Modern Phrygian (Native: βρουζ̌ικιά /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the Phrygian language.

Modern Phrygian
ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά
kšósa ta vružigyá
كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
Pronunciation[ˈkʃosa‿d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a]
Created byShariifka

Introduction

Etymology

Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά vružigyá < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά brugikā́ (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική pʰrygikḗ).

Features

  • PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
  • PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
  • PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
  • Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
  • Initial w- preserved (as v-) except before o.
    • New w also became v, or f after voiceless consonants (e.g. βαίνα véna "hyena" < ουαίνα wéna < ύαινα (h)úaina; τφω tfo "two" < τουω two < τύω túō).
  • nt > nn
  • Early Vns > Vis
  • Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
  • All labiovelars became plain velars.
  • Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
  • Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
  • In obstruent clusters (except for s + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
    • Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
      • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
    • The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
  • Assimilation of s to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
    • /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
      • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
    • /f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
    • Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
  • In obstruent + nasal clusters:
    • Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
    • Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/) and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
  • In obstruent + /l/ clusters, /l/ becomes /ʃ, ʒ/ and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
  • Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
  • Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
  • Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
    • Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
    • Final -n > nasalization, but -nn > -n

Phonology

Orthography

Note: In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.

Greek orthography

Alphabet
Letter Name IPA
Α α άλφα [ˈalfa]
Β β βέτα [ˈved̥a]
Γ γ γάμμα [ˈɣama]
Δ δ δέλτα [ˈðeld̥a]
Ε ε έμανο [ˈemano]
Ζ ζ ζέτα [ˈzed̥a]
Ζ̌ ζ̌ ζ̌έτα [ˈʒed̥a]
Η η έτα [ˈed̥a]
Θ θ θέτα [ˈθed̥a]
Ι ι γιώτα [ˈʝod̥a]
Letter Name IPA
Κ κ κάππα [ˈkapa]
Λ λ λάμπδα [ˈlambða]
Μ μ μου [mu]
Ν ν νου [nu]
Ξ ξ ξι [ksi]
Ξ̌ ξ̌ ξ̌ι [kʃi]
Ο ο όμανο [ˈomano]
Π π πι [pi]
Ρ ρ ρο [ro]
Σ σ ς σίγμα [ˈsiŋma]
Letter Name IPA
Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌ σ̌ίγμα [ˈʃiŋma]
Τ τ ταυ [taf]
Υ υ ούψιλο [ˈupsilο]
Φ φ φι [fi]
Χ χ χι [çi]
Ψ ψ ψι [psi]
Ψ̌ ψ̌ ψ̌ι [pʃi]
Ω ω ωμέκα [oˈmeɡ̊a]

The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.

With caron As multigraph
before front vowel before back vowel word-finally or before consonant
σ̌ σχ σχι σχ
ζ̌ ζγ ζγι ζγ
ξ̌ ξχ ξχι ξχ
ψ̌ ψχ ψχι ψχ
Consonants
Consonants
Letter Context IPA Examples Remarks
β everywhere [v] βεχ [vex] "six"
γ before front vowels ([e] or [i]). [ʝ] γεν [ʝen] "yen"
before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n]) [ŋ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋgo] "mango"; αγνός [aŋˈnos] "pure, chaste" This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç]) [ɲ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke" This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
everywhere else [ɣ] γαλκός [ɣalˈɡ̊os] "copper"
γγ before front vowel [ɲ] άγγελος [ˈaɲelos] "angel"
elsewhere [ŋ] άγγουρο [ˈaŋuro] "cucumber"
γι before vowels [ʝ] μαγιά [maˈʝa] "yeast"
γγι before vowels [ɲ] πάρκκιγγιους [ˈparciɲus] "parking (gen.)"
δ everywhere [ð] δούρα [ˈðura] "door"
ζ everywhere [z] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ζ̌ everywhere [ʒ] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
θ everywhere [θ] πθουγά [pθuˈɣa] "fold"
ι preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ɲ] μια [mɲa] "one (f.)"
preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ç] τιάρα [ˈtçara] "tiara" [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel [ʝ] τρια [trʝa] "three (n.)" [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
κ after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]). [ɟ̊] κακοί [kaˈɟ̊i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
after vowel or liquid otherwise [ɡ̊] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
after nasal before front vowel [ɟ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
after nasal otherwise [ɡ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋɡo] "mango"
before voiced obstruent [ɡ] άκδος [ˈaɡðos] "sorrow"
otherwise before front vowel [c] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
everywhere else [k] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
κκ before front vowel [c] δίκκοι [ˈðici] "discs"
otherwise [k] Μάκκα [ˈmaka] "Makkah"
κι after vowel or liquid and before a vowel [ɟ̊] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
after nasal before a vowel [ɟ] άγκιο [ˈaɲɟo] "cup"
otherwise before a vowel [c] κιουριακό [curʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
κκι before a vowel [c] ίκκιο [ˈico] "horse"
λ(λ) everywhere [l] άλφα [ˈalfa] "alpha"
λ(λ)ι before a vowel [ʎ] ζέλλια [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
μ(μ) everywhere [m] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ν non-final [n] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"
final [-̃, ɰ̃] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
νν everywhere [n] μάννα [ˈmana] "manna"
ν(ν)ι before a vowel [ɲ] χαλαππένιο [xalaˈpeɲo] "jalapeño"
ξ everywhere [ks] ξούλο [ˈksulo] "tree"
ξ̌ everywhere [kʃ] ξ̌έκκια [ˈkʃeca] "congregational mosque"
ου word-initial before a vowel or between vowels [w] Ουίντζορ [ˈwindzor] "Windsor"
π after vowel or liquid [b̥] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
after nasal [b] κάμπα [ˈkamba] "worm"
before voiced obstruent [b] πδέλλα [ˈbðela] "leech"
otherwise [p] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ππ everywhere [p] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper"
ρ(ρ) everywhere [r ~ ɾ] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper" In free variation.
σ(σ) everywhere [s] τος [tos] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
σ̌(σ̌) everywhere [ʃ] σ̌αχ [ʃax] "shah"
τ after vowel or liquid [d̥] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
after nasal; before voiced obstruent [d] άντρας [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
otherwise [t] τος [tos] "the"
ττ everywhere [t] άττα [ˈata] "father"
τσ everywhere [ts] πίτσα [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
τσ̌ everywhere [tʃ] τσ̌έττερες [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
τζ [dz] τζάγγα [ˈdzaŋɡa] "slipper"
τζ̌ [dʒ] άντζ̌αρος [ˈandʒaros] "messenger"
υ after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant [m] ενευνάνα [enemˈnana] "ninety"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant [f] ταυ [taf] "tau"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise [v] μεύος [ˈmevos] "mine"
φ everywhere [f] φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
χ before front vowel [ç] χεμικιός [çemiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
otherwise [x] χάλβα [ˈxalva] "halwa"
χι before vowel [ç] χιούμορ [ˈçumor] "humour"
ψ everywhere [ps] ψουγά [psuˈɣa] "mind"
ψ̌ everywhere [pʃ] ψ̌έμαν [ˈpʃemã] "soul"
Vowels
Monophthong Vowels
Letter IPA Examples Remarks
α [a] ακρός [aˈɡ̊ros] "field" Actually closer to [ä].
ε [e] βέκος [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread" Actually closer to [e̞].
αι βαίνα [ˈvena] "hyena"
ι [i] μιδός [miˈðos] "wage"
η μαθηματικά [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics" In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. τρης [tres] (modern τρες) "three".
υ φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. κύγνος (modern κούγνος) /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
ει είρος [ˈiros] "child"
οι είροι [ˈiri] "children"
υι βυίαλος [ˈvilos] "leaf"
ο [o] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Actually closer to [o̞].
ω πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ου [u] κούρα [ˈkura] "girl" Often written ȣ in older texts.
Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible:

Diphthongs
offglide→
nucleus↓ 		ι /i/ η /i/ υ /i/ ου /u/
α /a/ αϊ (άι) αη αϋ (άυ) αου
ε /e/ εϊ (έι) εη εϋ (έυ) εου
ο /o/ οϊ (όι) οη οϋ (όυ) οου
ω /o/ ωι ωη ωυ ωου

Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.

When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.

A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.

A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent. Monosyllabic words do not indicate stress.

When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.

When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Phonological history

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.

Cases

Nouns are declined for four cases:

  • Nominative
  • Genitive
  • Oblique
  • Vocative

The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.

Stress

Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.

There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.

Citation form

The citation form for most nouns is: nominative singular, genitive singular.

First declension (a-stems)

First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

First declension endings
Case Singular Plural
M F N M F N
Nominative -ας -α -αι -α
Genitive -ας -αν
Oblique -αν -α -αις -α
Vocative -α -αι -α

Second declension (o-stems)

Feminine second declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

Second declension endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ος -ο -οι -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -ουν -ο -οις -α
Vocative -ε -ο -οι -α

Third declension

There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.

Consonant stems

Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in -ας (masc./fem.) or -α (neut.).

Consonant stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ας/-/... -α/-/... -ες -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -αν -α/-/... -ες -α
Vocative -ας/-/... -α/-/... -ες -α
i-stems

Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.

i-stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ις/-/... -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Genitive -ιους -ιουν
Oblique -ιν -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Vocative -ις/-/... -ι/-ος/-/... -ες -ια
Mixed stems

Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but -ι- is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.

Mixed stem endings
Case Singular Plural
M/F N M/F N
Nominative -ις/-/... -ι/-/... -ες -α
Genitive -ους -ουν
Oblique -ιν -ι/-/... -ες -α
Vocative -ις/-/... -ι/-/... -ες -α

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.

First and second person pronouns
Nominative Genitive Oblique Possessive
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
1S εγιού γιου εμεύ μευ εμέ με μευός, -ά, -ό
2S ετού του ετεύ τευ ετέ τε τευός, -ά, -ό
1P ενές νες ενιούν νω ενές νω νωμός, -ά, -ό
2P εβές βες εβιούν βω εβές βω βωμός, -ά, -ό

Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:

  • Strong: απθός, -ά, -ό
  • Weak: θος, -α, -ο
  • Reflexive: βαπθός, -ά, -ό

Definite article/pronoun

Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: τος, τα, το.

Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.

Indefinite pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with κ-.

Relative pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with γι-.

Demonstrative pronouns

  • Near demonstrative: σεμός, -ά, -ό
    • First/second declension
  • Middle demonstrative: σις, σα, σι, σους
    • First/third declension (mixed stem)
  • Far demonstrative: τόττος, -α, -ο
    • First/second declension

These can be used with a following noun or on their own.

Adjectives

First/second declension

Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

This is the most common class of adjectives.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular.

Examples:

  • πρώτος, -α, -ο "first"

First/third declension

Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular.

Examples:

  • ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους "one"
  • αίδονας (αίδων), αίδοισα, αίδον, αίδονους "burning"

First declension

Declined as first declension in all genders.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine/neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Examples:

  • μέκας, μέκα, μέκας "big"

Second declension

Declined as second declension in all genders.

This class of adjectives is rare.

The citation form is masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Third declension

Declined as third declension in all genders.

The citation form is normally masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular

The exceptions are the numerals τρες, τρια "three" and τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα "four", which do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural.

Usage

Adjectives can be used in the following ways:

  1. Attributive: In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
  2. Predicative: Used as a predicate.
  3. Substantive: Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.

Verbs

Notes on verb conjugation

  1. Accent is recessive except in forms with fixed accent, which is indicated with an accent sign in the ending.
  2. In vowel initial verbs, the past prefix ε- changes form predictably based on the initial vowel as follows:
    • ε- + ε- > α-;
    • ε- is dropped before other front vowels (ι-, ει-, οι-, αι-, η-, υ-, υι-);
    • ε- > γι- before back vowels (α-, ο-, ω-, ου-).
  3. The future forms are also used as present subjunctive/jussive.

Principle parts and stems

Adverbs

Particles

Numerals

Phrygian numerals
Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Collective
0 ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματέν, ματένους ματενάνος, -α, -ο — —
1 ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους πρώτος, -α, -ο άπαχ μονάς, -άτους
2 τφω τφέτερος, -α, -ο τφις τφάς, -άτους
3 τρες, τρια τρίτος, -α, -ο τρις τριας, -άτους
4 τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις τσ̌ετράς, -άτους
5 πίντζ̌ε πίντος, -α, -ο πίγκιάτζ̌ις πιντάς, -άτους
6 βεχ βέκθος, -α, -ο βεξάτζ̌ις βεκθάς, -άτους
7 επθάν έπθαμος, -α, -ο εμμάτζ̌ις επθαμάς, -άτους
8 οκθών όκθουος, -α, -ο οκθώτζ̌ις οκθουάς, -άτους
9 ενιάν ένιανος, -α, -ο ενευνάτζ̌ις ενιανάς, -άτους
10 τέκαν τέκανος, -α, -ο τεκανάτζ̌ις τεκανάς, -άτους
11 ένεκαν ενέκανος, -α, -ο ενεκανάτζ̌ις ενεκανάς, -άτους
12 τφώτεκαν τφωτέκανος, -α, -ο τφωτεκανάτζ̌ις τφωτεκανάς, -άτους
13 τρίτεκαν τριτέκανος, -α, -ο τριτεκανάτζ̌ις τριτεκανάς, -άτους
14 τσ̌ετέρτεκαν τσ̌ετερτέκανος, -α, -ο τσ̌ετερτεκανάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετερτεκανάς, -άτους
15 πίντεκαν πιντέκανος, -α, -ο πιντεκανάτζ̌ις πιντεκανάς, -άτους
16 βέκθεκαν βεκθέκανος, -α, -ο βεκθεκανάτζ̌ις βεκθεκανάς, -άτους
17 επθάνεκαν επθανέκανος, -α, -ο επθανεκανάτζ̌ις επθανεκανάς, -άτους
18 οκθώνεκαν οκθωνέκανος, -α, -ο οκθωνεκανάτζ̌ις οκθωνεκανάς, -άτους
19 ενιάνεκαν ενιανέκανος, -α, -ο ενιανεκανάτζ̌ις ενιανεκανάς, -άτους
20 βίκιανι βικιοττός, -ά, -ό βικιανιάτζ̌ις βικιανιάς, -άτους
30 τριάνα τριαττός, -ά, -ό τριανάτζ̌ις τριανάς, -άτους
40 τσ̌ετράνα τσ̌ετραττός, -ά, -ό τσ̌ετρανάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετρανάς, -άτους
50 πιγκιάνα πιγκιαττός, -ά, -ό πιγκιανάτζ̌ις πιγκιανάς, -άτους
60 βεξάνα βεξαττός, -ά, -ό βεξανάτζ̌ις βεξανάς, -άτους
70 εμμάνα εμματτός, -ά, -ό εμμανάτζ̌ις εμμανάς, -άτους
80 οκθώνα οκθωττός, -ά, -ό οκθωνάτζ̌ις οκθωνάς, -άτους
90 ενευνάνα ενευναττός, -ά, -ό ενευνανάτζ̌ις ενευνανάς, -άτους
100 εκανόυν εκανοττός, -ά, -ό εκανάτζ̌ις εκανάς, -άτους
200 τφακιάνιοι τφακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τφακιανιάτζ̌ις τφακιανάς, -άτους
300 τριακιάνιοι τριακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τριακιανιάτζ̌ις τριακιανάς, -άτους
400 τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι τσ̌ετρακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό τσ̌ετρακιανιάτζ̌ις τσ̌ετρακιανάς, -άτους
500 πιγκιακιάνιοι πιγκιακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό πιγκιακιανιάτζ̌ις πιγκιακιανάς, -άτους
600 βεξακιάνιοι βεξακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό βεξακιανιάτζ̌ις βεξακιανάς, -άτους
700 εμμακιάνιοι εμμακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό εμμακιανιάτζ̌ις εμμακιανάς, -άτους
800 οκθωκιάνιοι οκθωκιανιοττός, -ά, -ό οκθωκιανιάτζ̌ις οκθωκιανάς, -άτους
900 ενευνακιάνιοι ενευνακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό ενευνακιανιάτζ̌ις ενευνακιανάς, -άτους
1000 ζέλλια ζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό ζελλιάτζ̌ις ζελλιάς, -άτους
2000 τφωζέλλιαι τφωζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό τφωζελλιάτζ̌ις τφωζελλιάς, -άτους

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Vocabulary

Time - Ώρα τα

Seasons - Γρόνοι τοι
English Phrygian
spring βιαρ, βιάρους
summer ζ̌ερός, -ιούς
fall οπώρα, -ας
winter ζ̌ειμούν, -ους
Gregorian months - Μενές τοι κρεκοριανόι
English Phrygian
January Γιανβάριος, -ιους
February Φερβάριος, -ιους
March Μάρτσ̌ος, -ιους
April Απρίλιος, -ιους
May Μάγιος, -ους
June Γιούνιος, -ους
July Γιούλιος, -ους
August Άπγουττος, -ους
September Σεπθέμπριος, -ιους
October Οκθώβριος, -ιους
November Νουέμπριος, -ιους
December Δετζ̌έμπριος, -ιους
Days of the week - Άμανα τα πδομάτους τας
English Phrygian
Sunday Κοιρακά
Monday Τφέτερα
Tuesday Τρίτα
Wednesday Τσ̌ετέρτα
Thursday Πίντα
Friday Τζ̌ούμγα
Saturday Σάβατο
Parts of the day - Μέλοι τοι άμανους τους
English Phrygian
day άμαρ, άμανους (n.)
dawn απγά, -ς (f.)
morning βώς, βώβους (f.)
noon μεσαμπριό, -ούς (n.)
afternoon τείλα, -ς (f.)
evening βεππέρα, -ς (f.)
dusk τούτις, τούτιους (f.)
night νουκθάς (νουχ), νουκθούς (f.)
midnight μεσανουξ̌ά, -ς (f.)
Units of time - Μονάτους ται ώρας τας
English Phrygian
second τφέτερο, -ους (n.)
minute λεπθό, -ούς (n.)
hour ώρα, -ς (f.)
day άμαρ, άμανους (n.)
week πδομάς, -άτους (f.)
month μένας (μεις), μενούς (m.)
season γρόνος, -ους (m.)
year βέτος, βείτους (n.)
Time adverbs - Επίβρεμανα τα ωραίκια
English Phrygian
now νουν
then άρα; τότζ̌ε
recently, a short time ago άρτι
earlier προς
soon, shortly
later ψές
always αει; πάντοτζ̌ε
often πυιλάτζ̌ις
sometimes κότζ̌ε
rarely παύροτζ̌ε
never μέκοτζ̌ε
ever κώκοτζ̌ε
still, yet έτι; κω
already
today σάμαρουν
tonight σινούκθουν
yesterday κδες
last night
tomorrow αύριουν
before yesterday
two nights ago
after tomorrow
this week
last week
next week
this year σέτες
last year πέρουτι
next year

Example texts

Other resources

Notes

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