|
|
| (100 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| [[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon]]
| | '''Knench''' is a divergent descendent of Canaanite spoken in ???. It does not lose Semitic triconsonantal morphology, but it loses older Semitic conjugated verb forms in favor of a construction using the infinitive construct. |
| | |
| [[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]
| |
| | |
| [[{{PAGENAME}}/Diachronics]]
| |
| {{Infobox language
| |
| |creator = [[User:IlL|Inthar]]
| |
| |nativename = Xraəni
| |
| |image =
| |
| |setting = [[Verse:Irta]]
| |
| |name = Knench
| |
| |pronunciation =
| |
| |states = Irta Libya
| |
| |speakers =
| |
| |script = Latin
| |
| |date =
| |
| |familycolor=afroasiatic
| |
| |fam1=Afro-Asiatic
| |
| |fam2=Semitic
| |
| |fam3=Central Semitic
| |
| |fam4=Northwest Semitic
| |
| |fam5=Canaanite
| |
| |fam6=[[Knench/Ancient|Ancient Knench]]
| |
| |fam7=[[Knench/Middle|Middle Knench]]
| |
| }}
| |
| | |
| '''Knench''' (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench ''χnānī'' via [[Old Azalic]] ''ngoinisχ''; natively ''Xraəni'' /xɾaənɪ/ or ''nyym Xraən'' /nɨːm xɾaən/) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench ''kanaȝn'' 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like [[Togarmite]] and [[Far East Semitic]]. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English.
| |
| | |
| Most modern Knench people are Remonitionists; some (particularly in North America and Cualand) are Muslim, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.
| |
| | |
| It's inspired grammatically by Welsh, and aesthetically by English, Icelandic, [[Naeng]], and Khmer.
| |
| | |
| == Names ==
| |
| === Native Knench names ===
| |
| * Parm (f.) is from baśam
| |
| * Þor (m.) 'bull (from Aramaic)'
| |
| | |
| Hugin and Munin (de novo derived from active participles ''*hūgi'' and ''*mūni'') are modern fantasy characters
| |
| | |
| ==History==
| |
| | |
| ==TODO==
| |
| * Focus prominence (like Welsh)
| |
| * Partially reduplicated auxiliaries for emphasis or truth value focus, from the infinitive absolute construction
| |
| ** 3asū ta3siyu li bol3ū 'you will indeed do the swallowing' > χśu-þąś blą ðu > śə·þąf blą ðu 'eat it you will'
| |
| * retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries
| |
| * ''hjuggə'' < ''hüggə'' 'coziness' from *hugyō 'contemplation' gets borrowed into English as ''hygge''
| |
| * Should be more of an Icelandic gib but spirantization of aspirated stops happens recently
| |
| * vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH ''wayhi'')
| |
| * -x > -rh
| |
| * A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds?
| |
| ** I dal bø gøpén pnarər. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.)
| |
| * Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme
| |
| *how do I isolate Ancient Knench from Phoenician?
| |
| *Icelandic style loss of phonemic vowel length?
| |
| *Swadesh list
| |
| *''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
| |
| *Many adverbs from infinitive absolute
| |
| *''simern'' = week
| |
| *''mədbar'' = conference
| |
| *Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''peþ'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'')
| |
| *''Mén fows ta xett kori?'' = Why did you have to die?
| |
| * replace a lot of Hebrew vocabulary with other words
| |
| ===Some sound changes===
| |
| * Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century)
| |
| *-ə (mainly from ACub ''-ō'') becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
| |
| *non-rhoticity (nonrhoticity has to happen after fem sg ending loss)
| |
| *ħ > x; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > ht
| |
| *ś > usually x, sometimes f or fl
| |
| *d-t, t-t (morpheme boundary) > st
| |
| *xr > x
| |
| *''Ri ni b žejn i p Mednə Əśidəs'' 'I live in the United States'
| |
| * š- > h-
| |
| * univerbate like crazy
| |
| | |
| ==Phonology==
| |
| American accent of Knench should be diff but still nonrhotic.
| |
| ===Consonants===
| |
| */m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹʷˁ~ʋʷˁ/ {{angbr|m n ł h l w j r}}
| |
| */p b f v t d θ ð k g/ {{angbr|p b f v t d þ ð k g}}
| |
| */s z ts ʃ ʒ tʃ fʷˁ~ɹ̝̊ʷˁ x h~0/ {{angbr|s z ts š ž č ś x h}}
| |
| | |
| Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa.
| |
| | |
| Stops are unaspirated.
| |
| | |
| ''ś'' is a retroflex sibilant in American Knench.
| |
| | |
| ===Vowels===
| |
| {{PAGENAME}} has one of the largest vowel inventories of any Semitic language in Irta (cf. Maltese has 18 vowels):
| |
| | |
| /a e ɪ ɔ ʊ äe iː äo ɨː ɑ̃ː ɛ̃ː ɪɤ̃ ɔ̃ː ju ɑː(ɹ) ɛː(ɹ) eː(ɹ) oː(ɹ) ə(ɹ)/ = {{angbr|a e i o u é í ó ú ą ę į ų ar er ir ur ju ə/r}}
| |
| | |
| /ə ɪ ʊ ɑ̃ː/ are the most common vowels in unstressed syllables.
| |
| | |
| Word-final /ə/ is transcribed as a syllabic ''r'' (''ər'' after ''r''), unless it's in a short clitic such as ''pə/p''' where it can be dropped.
| |
| | |
| In Maghrebi Knench, R-intrusion similar to that in Southern British English occurs after /ɑː(ɹ) ɛː(ɹ) eː(ɹ) oː(ɹ) ə(ɹ)/ and before a vowel. R-intrusion does not occur in American Knench: ''kríər úbi'' 'dear reader' (etym. reader my dear) is pronounced [kɹ̝iəɹ ɨːbi], not [kɹ̝iəɹ ɨːbi] as in Maghrebi Knench.
| |
| | |
| The following is Hrafn Leifsson (pseudonymous)'s classification of Knench vowels:
| |
| *Schwa: ə/r
| |
| *Short vowels: a e i o u
| |
| *Lengthened vowels: é í ó ú
| |
| *Nasal vowels: ą ę į ų
| |
| *R-colored vowels: ar er ir ur
| |
| | |
| ===Prosody===
| |
| ====Stress====
| |
| Stress tends penultimate or final.
| |
| | |
| ===Intonation===
| |
| A lot like Modern Standard Arabic
| |
| | |
| ===Phonotactics===
| |
| <!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
| |
| ===Morphophonology===
| |
| | |
| ==Orthography==
| |
| Modern Knench has a shallow orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script.
| |
| | |
| ==Morphology==
| |
| {{PAGENAME}} has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Knench.
| |
| | |
| <!-- Here are some example subcategories:
| |
| | |
| Nouns
| |
| Adjectives
| |
| Verbs
| |
| Adverbs
| |
| Particles
| |
| Derivational morphology
| |
| | |
| -->
| |
| ===Nouns and adjectives===
| |
| Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender.
| |
| ==== Number and definiteness ====
| |
| {{PAGENAME}} has regularized most plurals to ''-ə'' (from a merger of Ancient Knench ''-īn'' > ''*-ī'' and ''-ūδ''). ''-u'' nouns become ''-lə'' in the plural: ''þebu, þeblə'' 'a world, worlds'.
| |
| | |
| Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows:
| |
| *Singular: -əs (after C) or -sə (after V), (from haz-ze and haz-zū)
| |
| ** -u nouns become -ləs: ''apu, apləs'' 'an apple, the apple'
| |
| *Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix ''-ə'' if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul
| |
| ** ''aplə, apul'' 'apples, the apples'
| |
| | |
| Words ending in an R-colored vowel add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix.
| |
| * ''pdoo'' 'a tree', ''pdoorə'' 'trees'
| |
| * ''lyy'' 'a god', ''lyywə'' 'gods'
| |
| | |
| Some irregular plurals: ''penš, plenš'' = human
| |
| | |
| Examples:
| |
| *''śadə'' /ɹ̝̊adə/ = an apartment/flat
| |
| *''śadrəs'' /ɹ̝̊adrəs/ = the flat
| |
| *''śadrə'' /ɹ̝̊adrə/ = flats
| |
| *''śadril'' /ɹ̝̊adrɪl/ = the flats
| |
| *''śadə kruw'' = a big flat
| |
| *''śadrəs kruw'' = the big flat
| |
| *''śadrə krulə'' = big flats
| |
| *''śadril krulə'' = the big flats
| |
| | |
| ''-ma'' nouns from Greek become ''-mat'' nouns: ''þemat, þematas, þematr, þematil'' 'topic, theme'.
| |
| | |
| ==== Predicative adjectives ====
| |
| The predicative/adverbial marker ''bə'' + bare form is used for predicative adjectives: ''Ri śadrəs bə kruw'' 'The room is big'.
| |
| | |
| ==== Degree ====
| |
| *Equative: ''de'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH ''day'' 'enough')
| |
| *Comparative/Superlative: ''-ur'' = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes ''prej'' 'than' (from Ancient Knench ''pirūðī'' 'when I see')
| |
| | |
| Example: ''kruw'' 'big', ''de kruw'' 'as big as'; ''ro kruw'' 'so big; very big indeed', ''kruwðr'' 'bigger/biggest'
| |
| | |
| === Pronouns ===
| |
| Knench has a pronoun system similar to European languages, except that there is no grammatical gender and ''se'' "that" is used as an inanimate or gender-neutral pronoun. There is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural ''tim'' is also used as a polite pronoun.
| |
| | |
| ''I'' (/i:/ or /ɪ/) is the default form for the 1sg subject pronoun; ''ni'' is used after a vowel or for disambiguation.
| |
| | |
| For gender-neutral usage, ''tu'' has been proposed as a 2nd person singular neopronoun (inspired by Indo-European languages). This isn't as common as using the 2nd person plural ''tim'' as singular, however.
| |
| | |
| Knench emphatic pronouns come from a suffixed ''-nna'' (precative).
| |
| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
| |
| |+ Pronouns in {{PAGENAME}}, basic forms
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; "| → Person
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | I
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | he
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | she
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | we
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | ye
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | they
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Basic forms
| |
| | ''i, ni''
| |
| | ''tə''
| |
| | ''ti''
| |
| | ''u''
| |
| | ''oj''
| |
| | ''nu''
| |
| | ''tim''
| |
| | ''im''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Emphatic forms
| |
| | ''(n)in''
| |
| | ''tan''
| |
| | ''ten''
| |
| | ''un''
| |
| | ''ojn, hin''
| |
| | ''nun''
| |
| | ''temnə''
| |
| | ''emnə''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ==== Interrogative pronouns ====
| |
| * ''da'' = what? (nominal)
| |
| ** archaic ''ida'' (*hajj dabar 'what thing')
| |
| * ''ew'' = who? (*2ajj hū)
| |
| ** poetic ''mi''
| |
| * ''ajšə'' = which?
| |
| * ''énə'' = where?
| |
| * ''məðé'' = when?
| |
| * ''łəma'' = why? (*3lē ma 'on what')
| |
| ** archaic/poetic ''maləh'' (*ma lak 'what's the matter')
| |
| * ''ham'' = how many?
| |
| * ''hélt'' = how?
| |
| | |
| ===Verbs===
| |
| Almost all verbs use only one form, the infinitive (usually etymologically the infinitive construct with a prefixed ''l-'', which may sometimes be conflated with the etymological imperative). The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed ''l-'', depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. ''žbuð'' 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. ''benin'' 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun ''binyan''; from the root b-n-y)
| |
| | |
| The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ''ðeht ló oj!'' = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing ''bal'' or ''bawði'' before the verb.
| |
| ====Inflected verbs====
| |
| Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):
| |
| *''luð'' 'to be'
| |
| *''śuð'' 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses
| |
| *''buð'' 'to come': sometimes means 'must, have to'. ''bu'' is still used as a directional.
| |
| *''leht'' 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects
| |
| *''kaht'' 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs
| |
| *''ðeht'' 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives
| |
| Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy.
| |
| | |
| Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as ''lu'' 'not', ''xaž'' 'relativizer', ''xi'' 'when', or ''śu'' 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from ''*3aśū ja3śiju'' 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for ''luð'' 'to be'.
| |
| | |
| Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of ''luð''). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator ''lu'' only negates finite verbs.
| |
| | |
| The present particle ''ri'' comes from ''ru{{aleph}}i'', the imperative of ''ra{{aleph}}ō'' 'to see'. ''Ri'' is not used in subordinate clauses:
| |
| *'''''Ri''' Đavíð þaś žin.'' = David is about to sleep.
| |
| *'''''Pið''' Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras.'' = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights.
| |
| | |
| Yes-no questions are marked by a rising intonation, using the focus particle ''=n(ə)'' (cognate to Hebrew נא) after the word/phrase whose truth value is asked about, and dropping ''ri'' in sentences with a nominal subject. In sentences without a specific focused constituent, ''n(ə)'' appears sentence-finally in sentences with no finite verb, and after the finite verb if there is one.
| |
| * ''Đavíð þaś žin nə?'' = Is David going to bed? (neutral)
| |
| * ''Đavíð nə þaś žin?'' = Is it David who's going to bed?
| |
| * ''Fows nə tə [neśú] jaś Marí amž?'' = Did you marry Marí yesterday?
| |
| * ''Fows tan [neśú] jaś Marí amž?'' = Is it you who married Marí yesterday?
| |
| {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 750px; text-align:center;"
| |
| |+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}}
| |
| ! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | I
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | he
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | she
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | we
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | you (plural)
| |
| ! style="width: 75px; " | they
| |
| |-
| |
| ! colspan=2|Present ''ri/r' ''
| |
| | ''i, ni''
| |
| | ''tə''
| |
| | ''ti''
| |
| | ''r'u''
| |
| | ''r'oj''
| |
| | ''nu''
| |
| | ''tim''
| |
| | ''r'im''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=4| ''luð''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''wejð i''
| |
| | ''wejs tə''
| |
| | ''wejs ti''
| |
| | ''wii u''
| |
| | ''wieþ oj''
| |
| | ''wejn nu''
| |
| | ''wejs tim''
| |
| | ''wilu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! future dep.
| |
| | ''jie i''
| |
| | ''þies tə''
| |
| | ''þies ti''
| |
| | ''jie u''
| |
| | ''þieþ oj''
| |
| | ''nien nu''
| |
| | ''þies tim''
| |
| | ''juu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''waj i''
| |
| | ''was tə''
| |
| | ''was ti''
| |
| | ''waj u''
| |
| | ''waþ oj''
| |
| | ''wan nu''
| |
| | ''was tim''
| |
| | ''waju'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past dep.
| |
| | ''hejð i''
| |
| | ''hejs tə''
| |
| | ''hejs ti''
| |
| | ''hie u''
| |
| | ''hieþ oj''
| |
| | ''hejn nu''
| |
| | ''hejs tim''
| |
| | ''hilu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2| ''śuð''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''fowð i''
| |
| | ''fows tə''
| |
| | ''fows ti''
| |
| | ''fow u''
| |
| | ''foəl oj''
| |
| | ''fown nu''
| |
| | ''fows tim''
| |
| | ''folu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''woś i''
| |
| | ''þoś tə''
| |
| | ''þoś ti''
| |
| | ''joś u''
| |
| | ''þoś oj''
| |
| | ''noś nu''
| |
| | ''þoś tim''
| |
| | ''jośu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2| ''buð''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''powð i''
| |
| | ''pows tə''
| |
| | ''pows ti''
| |
| | ''pow u''
| |
| | ''poəl oj''
| |
| | ''pown nu''
| |
| | ''pows tim''
| |
| | ''polu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''pax i''
| |
| | ''tpax tə''
| |
| | ''tpaj ti''
| |
| | ''pax u''
| |
| | ''tpax oj''
| |
| | ''pax nu''
| |
| | ''tpaw tim''
| |
| | ''paw'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2| ''leht''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''lawð i''
| |
| | ''laws tə''
| |
| | ''laws ti''
| |
| | ''law u''
| |
| | ''laəl oj''
| |
| | ''lawn nu''
| |
| | ''laws tim''
| |
| | ''lalu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''lax i''
| |
| | ''tlax tə''
| |
| | ''tlej ti''
| |
| | ''lax u''
| |
| | ''tlax oj''
| |
| | ''lax nu''
| |
| | ''tlaw tim''
| |
| | ''law'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2| ''kaht''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''kawð i''
| |
| | ''kaws tə''
| |
| | ''kaws ti''
| |
| | ''kaw u''
| |
| | ''kaəl oj''
| |
| | ''kawn nu''
| |
| | ''kaws tim''
| |
| | ''kalu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''kax i''
| |
| | ''tkax tə''
| |
| | ''tkaj ti''
| |
| | ''kax u''
| |
| | ''tkax oj''
| |
| | ''kax nu''
| |
| | ''tkaw tim''
| |
| | ''kaw'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| !rowspan=2| ''ðeht''
| |
| ! future indep.
| |
| | ''nawð i''
| |
| | ''naws tə''
| |
| | ''naws ti''
| |
| | ''naw u''
| |
| | ''naəl oj''
| |
| | ''nawn nu''
| |
| | ''naws tim''
| |
| | ''nalu'm''
| |
| |-
| |
| ! past indep.
| |
| | ''nax i''
| |
| | ''tnax tə''
| |
| | ''tnaj ti''
| |
| | ''nax u''
| |
| | ''tnax oj''
| |
| | ''nax nu''
| |
| | ''tnaw tim''
| |
| | ''naw'm''
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ====Regular pa3al verbs====
| |
| The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC.
| |
| | |
| When C1 is a guttural, the ''l-'' usually resurfaces:
| |
| * C1 = ayin: ''ląbur'' 'to go past'
| |
| * C1 = aleph/he: ''lévuð'' 'to bake, to fire', ''lézuð'' 'to be crazy, to be cool' (or ''vuð'', ''zuð'')
| |
| * C1 = heth: ''lętul'' 'to cease/stop'
| |
| | |
| ====-t verbs====
| |
| *leht = to go by foot
| |
| *kaht = to take
| |
| *žeht = to go back
| |
| *žeft = to sit
| |
| *lest = to be born
| |
| *rest = to go down
| |
| *rešt = to acquire; to get
| |
| *ðeht = to give
| |
| *xeht = to carry, to owe, should
| |
| *tseht = to go out, to start X-ing
| |
| *žoot = to go by vehicle
| |
| *goot = to hit; also a (pseudo-)auxiliary for "to do X correctly"
| |
| *doot = to know
| |
| *toot = to farm, to grow (plants)
| |
| | |
| ====Regular nif3al====
| |
| The regular pattern is *(li)CoCiC where the first C is not voiced. The ''l-'' appears when the first consonant is a guttural or a semivowel.
| |
| | |
| ====Regular pi3el====
| |
| The regular pattern is *(lə)CaCiC or *(lə)CiCuC where the middle C is not voiced.
| |
| | |
| ====Regular hif3il====
| |
| The regular pattern is *laCCiC, *leCCeC, or *laCCóC.
| |
| | |
| ====Other verbs====
| |
| Other verbs come from noun derivation patterns, or from earlier verb + noun collocations.
| |
| | |
| ===Prepositions===
| |
| Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: ''lah tə'' /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. ''lah tan'' /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'.
| |
| | |
| example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly
| |
| *1sg: l'i, li ni
| |
| *2sg.m: lah tə
| |
| *2sg.f: lah ti
| |
| *3sg.m: lom u
| |
| *3sg.f: l'oj, ló oj
| |
| *3sg.n: ləze
| |
| *1pl. lon nu
| |
| *2pl. lam tim
| |
| *3pl. low'm
| |
| | |
| Other prepositions:
| |
| *''men'' = from
| |
| *''tubel'' = for
| |
| *''jaən'' = because of (also "reason")
| |
| *''łaj'' = on, above
| |
| *''jaś, jaśəm'' = with (both inst. and com.)
| |
| *''pəłee'' = inside, within
| |
| **sim. ''ləłee, məłee'' 'into, out of'
| |
| *''pəlip'' = amidst
| |
| *''wen'' = without
| |
| *''mənie'' = before, in front of
| |
| *''kodm'' = before (temporally)
| |
| *''xni'' = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half')
| |
| *''məłææl'' = above
| |
| *''məþææl'' = below
| |
| *''þaht'' = instead of
| |
| *''til'' = like, as
| |
| *''śakə'' = until
| |
| | |
| === Numbers ===
| |
| | |
| Danish system?
| |
| | |
| 0-10: sifr, rhóð, šném/šné (attributive), šluž, arvą, rhomi, šeš, šebą, šmún, þeš, łarh
| |
| | |
| 11-20: štąh, šnająh, šlužąh, arvąh, rhomižąh, šežąh, šebąh, šmúnąh, þežąh, łerhi
| |
| | |
| 21-30: łerhi rhóð, łerhi šném, ... łerhi łarh
| |
| | |
| 31-40: łerhi łarh štąh, ..., šné łerhi
| |
| | |
| 41, 42, ...: šné łerhi rhóð, šné łerhi šném, ...
| |
| | |
| 60: šluž łerhi
| |
| | |
| ...
| |
| | |
| 100: mír
| |
| | |
| 1000: awv
| |
| | |
| ==Syntax==
| |
| ===Constituent order===
| |
| The order is tense-subject-verb-object.
| |
| | |
| :'''''R'ižəs ław blą u abwəs.'''''
| |
| :''The man is eating the apple.''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Ri péð u bə de kruw til stadi.'''''
| |
| :''His house is as big as a stadium.''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Fól oj ðə fluð xawgpéð oj bə ro-múxr.'''''
| |
| :''She did her homework too late.''
| |
| | |
| The negative particle ''dal'' (from ''tabar lū'' 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.
| |
| | |
| ===Faulty accusative===
| |
| {{PAGENAME}} has the faulty accusative (glossed as FA) particle ''ðə'' or ''ð' '', from Ancient Knench ''jūδ ha-''. It is actually not used for direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. It also replaces a (TAM-marking) "preposition" in front of a lexical verb, when no preposition is used.
| |
| | |
| === Noun phrase ===
| |
| Y's X = X Y-DEF: ''šem vaziləs'' = the king's name
| |
| | |
| To say "this X" or "that X", ''X-DEF fu'' and ''X-DEF feni'' (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say ''se fu'' and ''se feni'' (where the ''se'' becomes ''ilə'' in the plural).
| |
| | |
| ''havu, haveni'' = like this, like that
| |
| | |
| The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is ''suð''.
| |
| | |
| ===Verb phrase===
| |
| Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries:
| |
| : '''''R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsęg.'''''
| |
| : 3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke
| |
| : ''Her jokes never fail to land.''
| |
| (*) a loan from an unknown source
| |
| ====VN constructions====
| |
| Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect.
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm goes
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''ław''' leht oj'' = Parm is going
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''þax''' leht oj'' = Parm is about to go
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''xni''' leht oj'' = Parm has gone
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''xni juð oj bə''' leht'' = Parm has been going
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''dəž''' leht oj'' = Parm just went
| |
| *'''''ri''' Parm '''wen''' leht oj'' = Parm hasn't went
| |
| *'''''fól''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE ''She done went'')
| |
| *'''''þąf''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm will go (perfective)
| |
| *'''''han''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm went (imperfective)
| |
| *'''''þé''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm will go (imperfective)
| |
| *''leht!'' = Go! (number neutral)
| |
| *'''''gwenu''' leht!'' (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go!
| |
| | |
| In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: ''R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs''. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)".
| |
| | |
| The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: ''Ðób tə ð'i nr?'' 'Do you love me?'
| |
| | |
| ==== Passive and causative ====
| |
| ''Ðett'' 'to give' is used as an auxiliary for the causative:
| |
| : ''Nawð i ðə pinxadəs el kapwəs el ąnuj.''
| |
| : I made the horse bore the farmer to death.
| |
| : (lit. I gave the horse the farmer to inflict boredom)
| |
| In a ''ðett''-causative construction, the more animate object takes the dative preposition ''el''. This connects ditransitives which are causatives of transitives to the basic ditransitive verb 'give'.
| |
| | |
| To form passives two different auxiliaries are used:
| |
| * ''Kaht'' 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb.
| |
| * ''leht'' 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized).
| |
| | |
| : ''Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.''
| |
| : 'He was made to suffer so many things.'
| |
| | |
| : ''Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.''
| |
| : 'The grass was fed to the horse.'
| |
| | |
| === Balancing vs deranking conjunctions ===
| |
| Balancing conjunctions take full finite clauses (clauses with a finite verb or an auxiliary):
| |
| * ''ej'' "and"
| |
| * ''ow'' "or"
| |
| * ''mur'' (complementizer)
| |
| * ''łeþr'' "when"
| |
| * ''wí'' "if" (< *wa-kī)
| |
| * ''jern'' "because"
| |
| | |
| Deranking conjunctions replace finite forms of the copula ''juð'' and thus are also called ''copula-replacing conjunctions'' (e.g. by Hrafn). Some CRCs are:
| |
| * ''prí'' "than"
| |
| * ''jið'' (complementizer)
| |
| * ''pið'' "when"
| |
| | |
| === Time clauses ===
| |
| ==== ''pið''-clauses ====
| |
| A ''pið''-clause is in the same tense as the clause it's embedded in. ''Pið''-clauses denote states, things that can be marked with ''re'' + tense markers in the present tense), rather than completed actions.
| |
| ==== ''łeþr''-clauses ====
| |
| ''łeþr'' are used for clauses with auxiliaries other than the present tense copula.
| |
| | |
| ===Complementizer===
| |
| There is a complementizer ''mur'' (from ''lēmūr'') or ''jið'' (from conflation of ''hajūδ'' 'to be' and ''jūδ'' accusative marker) depending on dialect.
| |
| | |
| ===Relativizer===
| |
| In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer ''haž'' (from ''*χa-ʔašir'' 'like that which'). ''n'' may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used.
| |
| | |
| Subject of a copula auxiliary:
| |
| : '''''paras haž han __ bə gri u "pnar"'''''
| |
| : the boy who cried (would cry) wolf
| |
| | |
| Subject with a non-copula auxiliary:
| |
| : '''''paras haž fow __ gri "pnar"'''''
| |
| : the boy who cried wolf (once)
| |
| | |
| Direct object:
| |
| : '''''vivlias haž śown nu ðə gru (se (n))'''''
| |
| : the book that we read
| |
| | |
| Oblique object:
| |
| : '''''péðas haž han oj bə xun oj pəze (n)'''''
| |
| : the house she used to live in
| |
| | |
| To relativise the subject of a ''present'' copula, ''łom'' (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used:
| |
| | |
| : R' abwas pə śadə i. -> '''''abwas łom pə śadə i'''''
| |
| : the apple in my flat
| |
| | |
| : Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> '''''plenžil łom xni leht im'''''
| |
| : the people who have gone
| |
| | |
| === Serial verb construction ===
| |
| Serial verbs are also very common in Knench:
| |
| | |
| : '''''Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u. '''''
| |
| : come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M
| |
| :Moshe came, took, and opened his gift.
| |
| | |
| Directionals derived from verbs, such as ''leht'' '(t)hence', ''bu'' '(t)hither' and ''kub'' 'movement together with another person' are also common and may replace pronouns.
| |
| | |
| === Wh-questions ===
| |
| No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case ''łom'' is used after the wh-word. However, ''łom'' is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ''ri'' is dropped in questions.)
| |
| | |
| :'''''Dar Petə bə fluð?'''''
| |
| :''What's Peter doing?''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Dar łom bə gruð?'''''
| |
| :''What's happening?''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Dar se fu? (*Dar łom se fu?)'''''
| |
| :''What's this?''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Énr ti?'''''
| |
| :''Where are you?''
| |
| | |
| :'''''Énr fows tə ðə leht?''''' / '''''Énr laws tr?'''''
| |
| :''Where have you been?''
| |
| | |
| ==Vocabulary==
| |
| Knench has the following vocabulary layers:
| |
| | |
| # Most of the common words are inherited from the Semitic common ancestor of Ancient Knench and Biblical Hebrew, however they often show drastic semantic drift or univerbation. Example: ''šłúd'' 'a lot' comes from ''saȝudō'' 'feast'. Cranberry morphemes are not uncommon in Semito-Knench.
| |
| # Azalic substrate
| |
| # Ancient Greek, Aramaic
| |
| # Latin, Romance, Arabic, Turkic and Modern Greek
| |
| | |
| Although it is attested in Ancient Knench, the *CaCīCō verbal noun pattern is not as productive as the corresponding pattern in Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew.
| |
| | |
| Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:
| |
| *''əmbein'' 'brick' from ''*habanē binjan'' 'building stones'
| |
| *''həvgom'' 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from ''*šafx dam'' 'spilling of blood'
| |
| *''łienəm'' 'source' from ''ʕēn mayim'' 'spring of water'
| |
| *''xifin'' 'to like' from ''*śe'θ fin'' lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
| |
| *''xihniem (el)'' 'to look at' from ''*śe'θ 3ēnajim'' 'lift eyes'
| |
| *''krəlieb'' 'conscience' from ''*qūl hal-lēbb'' lit. 'voice of the heart'
| |
| | |
| Some productive affixes are:
| |
| *pen-/ple- = agentive, -ling
| |
| ** ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench ''zēb'', which had become taboo by Old Knench
| |
| *peδ- = place noun
| |
| *pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter')
| |
| ** ''pdoo'' = tree (*pett ja3r)
| |
| ** ''pdam'' = wave (*pett jamm)
| |
| ** ''pdəəm'' = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō)
| |
| ** ''pdeš'' = flame
| |
| ** ''pled'' = echo
| |
| ** ''pədnə'' = stream
| |
| ** ''pəmtaa'' = dew (from ''mtaa'' 'rain')
| |
| ** ''pədkažəm'' = (''poetic'') petrichor
| |
| *''-l'' = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
| |
| ** ''hamžəl'' 'to dry' < ''hamž'' '(archaic) sun'
| |
| * -is: -ess (from Greek)
| |
| ** ''vazilis'' 'queen' < ''vazil'' 'king'
| |
| ** ''mææšivis'' 'witch' < ''mææšiv'' 'mage, wizard'
| |
| * ''lið-'' = mediopassive
| |
| * ''məð-'' is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles
| |
| ** ''luri'' 'to amaze'; ''muri'' 'amazing'; ''məðuri'' 'amazed'
| |
| | |
| ==Example texts==
| |
| ===UDHR, Article 1===
| |
| :'''''Law xol plenžil ðə lest im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej reitil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəlieb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hyyv p nažəm axə.'''''
| |
| :PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood.
| |
| :''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
| |
| | |
| ===Tower of Babel===
| |
| # ''Han pə þó law þebwəs ðə súðu ləžunəs ej núməs bə lųl im.''
| |
| # ''Wini pið im bə leht im men ést, flu'm ðə find meštəxəs Šinłar vi ližešib feni.''
| |
| # ''Flu'm el šúv mur: "Pulé, gwenu fluð əmbínr vi ladeb vuð im." vi han əmbínil bə lųl im low'm til əbonr, vi əgíləs til mawd.''
| |
| # ''Mur: "Pulé, gwenu benin krir lon nu ej tur pəze, jąf ruž se ðə łali leht šméməs, vi nąf nu ðə nawž nu bə dųžim! Oz nąf nu dal ðə liðvasr łaj þó law þebwəs."''
| |
| # ''Wini fow Mənęləs ðə rest bu, hę jąf u ðə xihném el krirəs ej turəs haž han plenšil ław benin im ð'im.''
| |
| # ''Fow Mənęlas mur: "Łeþr kalu'm ðə tseht fluð suð til xóð pobu łom bə dapr xóð núm, jé dal rustə el mędəbr haž jú'm bə zúm im fluð!''
| |
| # ''"Pulé, gwenu rest leht vi bawbil núm im, oz jú'm dal bə lębin im ðə núm šúv."''
| |
| # ''Vi men feni fow Mənęləs ðə vasr im łaj þó law þebwəs, vi flu'm ðə znurh men benin krirəs.''
| |
| # ''Me jernas fu kaw krirəs ðə šeməs Babel -- fow Mənęləs ðə bawbil feni núm þó law þebwəs. Men feni fow Mənęləs ðə vasr im łaj þó law þebwəs.''
| |
| | |
| ===Schleicher's Fable===
| |
| | |
| ==Phrasebook==
| |
| When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively.
| |
| *''Hlym!'' = Hello! / Goodbye!
| |
| * ''Maþin tub!'' = Good morning!
| |
| * ''Śnitsåå tub!'' = Good afternoon!
| |
| * ''Łaab tub!'' = Good evening!
| |
| * ''Liel tub!'' = Good night!
| |
| *''Śakə!'' = See you!
| |
| *''Bu də/di/dim!'' = Welcome!
| |
| *''Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]!'' = Thank you!
| |
| *''Im tsəśém tə/ti/tim'' = Please (etym. ''himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa'' 'if it finds favor in your eyes')
| |
| **also ''pləiz'' (from English)
| |
| *''łeþ tub'' = have fun
| |
| * ''Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]?'' = What's your name?
| |
| *''Kawð i ðə [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME].
| |
| *''Powð i men...'' = I'm from...
| |
| *''Lawð i lest pə...'' = I was born in...
| |
| *''I bə fu.'' = I'm here.
| |
| *''(I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim].'' = I love you.
| |
| | |
| <!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
| |
| | |
| <!-- Template area -->
| |
| | |
| | |
| [[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
| |
| [[Category:Languages]]
| |
| [[Category:Semitic languages]]
| |
| [[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
| |