Zanahi: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
 
(92 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 13: Line 13:
|familycolor = Indo-European
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|ancestor = Proto-Zanahi
|ancestor = [[Proto-Zanahi]]
<!--
<!--
|ancestor2 = Old Zanahi
|ancestor2 = Old Zanahi
Line 275: Line 275:
! Grapheme !! Scientific transliteration !! Alternative transliterations !! IPA !! Name !! Remarks
! Grapheme !! Scientific transliteration !! Alternative transliterations !! IPA !! Name !! Remarks
|-
|-
|  || a ||  || {{IPA|/a/}} || lawšā<!--*lewH---> ||  
|  || a ||  || {{IPA|/a/}} || lawšā<!--*lewH---> || Literally "opening".
|-
|-
|  || e || ĕ || {{IPA|/e/}} || barqā silīṯā  || In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
|  || i || || {{IPA|/i/}} || barqā<!--*breg--> || Literally "breaking".
|-
|-
|  || i ||  || {{IPA|/i/}} || barqā<!--*breg--> ||  
|  || u ||  || {{IPA|/u/}} || ‘anzā<!--*h2eng'h--> || Literally "narrowing".
|-
|-
|  || o || ŏ || {{IPA|/o/}} || ’anzā silīṯā || In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
|  || e || ĕ || {{IPA|/e/}} || barqā salīṯā  || Literally "sloped breaking". <br />In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
|-
|-
|  || u || || {{IPA|/u/}} || ‘anzā<!--*h2eng'h--> ||
|  || o || ŏ || {{IPA|/o/}} || ’anzā salīṯā || Literally "sloped narrowing". <br />In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
|-
|-
|  || ā || aa; â || {{IPA|/aː/}} || ’alpā ṭalgā ||  
|  || ā || aa; â || {{IPA|/aː/}} || ’alpā ṭalgā || Literally "long ’alpā".
|-
|-
| || â || aa; ā || {{IPA|/aː/}} || lawšā ṭalgā || Used in a few words.
| || â || aa; ā || {{IPA|/aː/}} || lawšā ṭalgā || Literally "long opening". <br />Used in a few words.
|-
|-
|  || ē || ee; ea; ei; ey; ê; e || {{IPA|/eː/}} || yāḏā silīṯā ||  
|  || ē || ee; ea; ei; ey; ê; e || {{IPA|/eː/}} || yāḏā salīṯā || Literally "sloped yāḏā".
|-
|-
|  || ī || ii; ee; iy; î || {{IPA|/iː/}} || yāḏā ṭalgā ||  
|  || ī || ii; ee; iy; î || {{IPA|/iː/}} || yāḏā ṭalgā || Literally "long yāḏā".
|-
|-
|  || ō || oo; oa; ou; ow; ô; o || {{IPA|/oː/}} || wawwā silīṯā ||  
|  || ō || oo; oa; ou; ow; ô; o || {{IPA|/oː/}} || wawwā salīṯā || Literally "sloped wawwā".
|-
|-
|  || ū || uu; oo; uw; û || {{IPA|/uː/}} || wawwā ṭalgā ||  
|  || ū || uu; oo; uw; û || {{IPA|/uː/}} || wawwā ṭalgā || Literally "long wawwā".
|-
|-
| || aw || au || {{IPA|/aw/}} || wawwā milṭā ||
| || aw || au || {{IPA|/aw/}} || wawwā milṭā || Literally "soft wawwā".
|-
|-
| || ay || ai || {{IPA|/aj/}} || yāḏā milṭā ||
| || ay || ai || {{IPA|/aj/}} || yāḏā milṭā || Literally "soft yāḏā".
|-
|-
| || C || || C || kīlā || Used to indicate that a consonant is not followed by a vowel.
| || C || || C || kīlā || Literally "resting". <br />Used to indicate that a consonant is not followed by a vowel.
|-
|-
| || CC || || C{{IPA|ː}} || ḅulīṯā || Used to indicate that a consonant is geminated.
| || CC || || C{{IPA|ː}} || ḅalīṯā || Literally "strengthened". <br />Used to indicate that a consonant is geminated.
|}
|}


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
Stress falls on the last heavy syllable of a word. For definition of light and heavy syllables, see the ohonotactics section below.
For the purposes of stress, a word can be categorized into two categories: a word with one or more heavy syllables and a word without a heavy syllable. Note that suffixes are treated as part of the word but prefixed particles are excluded.


In traditional poetry, stress is determined by meter.
In words with at least one heavy syllable, the last heavy syllable is stressed provided that it is one of the last three syllables of the word. Otherwise, the third last syllable is stressed.
 
If a word does not have any heavy syllables, the first syllable is stressed.
 
For definition of light and heavy syllables, see the phonotactics section below.
 
In traditional poetry, usual word stress is forgone and instead is determined by meter.


====Intonation====
====Intonation====
Line 324: Line 330:
*CV̄CC (word-finally only, rare)
*CV̄CC (word-finally only, rare)


CV̆ syllables regardless of position as well as word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are considered light. Any other syllable structure is considered heavy.
CV̆ syllables regardless of position as well as word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are considered light. Any other syllable structure is considered heavy. Exceptionally, the suffixed second- and third-person plural pronouns are treated as light.


Note that in traditional poetry, word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are treated as heavy, and only CV̆ syllables are considered light regardless of position.
Note that in traditional poetry, word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are treated as heavy, and only CV̆ syllables are considered light regardless of position.
Line 358: Line 364:
<!--
<!--
This is due to the historical sound changes ''ayV#'' > ''ē'' and ''awV#'' > ''ō''-->
This is due to the historical sound changes ''ayV#'' > ''ē'' and ''awV#'' > ''ō''-->
The vowels ''-ī-'' and ''-ū-'' similarly "break" into ''-iy-'' and ''-uw-'' before vowel-initial suffixes.
====Vowel shortening====
====Vowel shortening====
When followed by two consonants, a long vowel is shortened.
When followed by two consonants, a long vowel is shortened.
Line 433: Line 442:
Nouns do not decline for case.
Nouns do not decline for case.


Consonant-final singular nouns have a construct state formed by adding a final ''-a''. If the noun ends in a vowel, it does not change. Plural nouns also do not change <!--However, plural nouns instead change their ending (see the table below).-->
Consonant-final singular nouns have a construct state formed by adding a final ''-a''. If the noun ends in a vowel, it does not change. Plural nouns also do not change unless they are broken plurals<!--However, plural nouns instead change their ending (see the table below).-->


There are two genders: masculine and feminine.The feminine is most often marked with the ending ''-ā''<!-- (which becomes ''-at'' in the construct case)-->.
There are two genders: masculine and feminine.The feminine is most often marked with the ending ''-ā''<!-- (which becomes ''-at'' in the construct case)-->.
Line 442: Line 451:
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in gender and definiteness.
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in gender and definiteness.


The definite article is ''han-'', which is prefixed to the noun/adjective. Before a non-guttural consonant (i.e. any consonant besides ''’, h, ‘, ḥ, ġ, ḫ, ḡ, ḵ''), the ''-n-'' is dropped and the first consonant of the noun/verb is geminated. After a prefix, the ''ha-'' is dropped. After a preposition, ''ha-'' or ''a-'' is dropped if the preposition ends in a vowel or consonant respectively.
The definite article is ''han-'', which is prefixed to the noun/adjective. Before a non-guttural consonant (i.e. any consonant besides ''’, h, ‘, ḥ, ġ, ḫ, ḡ, ḵ''), the ''-n-'' is dropped and the first consonant of the noun/verb is geminated. After a prefix, the ''ha-'' is dropped. After a preposition, ''ha-'' or ''h-'' is dropped if the preposition ends in a vowel or consonant respectively.


There is no indefinite article.
There is no indefinite article.
Line 500: Line 509:


====Adverbs====
====Adverbs====
Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives or nouns with the suffix ''-ā''.
====Numerals====
====Numerals====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi numerals
|+ Zanahi numerals
! rowspan="2"| Symbol !! colspan="2"|Cardinal number !! rowspan="2"| Stem
! rowspan="2"| Symbol !! colspan="2"|Cardinal number !! rowspan="2"| Stem !! rowspan="2"| Fraction
|-
|-
! masc. !! fem.
! masc. !! fem.
|-
|-
! 0
! 0
| colspan="2"| ṣifr || ṣifr-
| colspan="2"| ṣifr || ṣifr- || —
|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| ‘ayn || ‘aynā || ‘ayn-
| ‘ayn || ‘aynā || ‘ayn- || daruww <!--ḥam-->
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| colspan="2" | ṭuwā || ṭuw-
| colspan="2" | ṭuwā || ṭuw- || hām
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| tarayā || tarē || taray-
| tirayā || tirē || tiray- || tirēm
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| kaṯurā || kaṯur || kaṯur-
| kaṯurā || kaṯur || kaṯur- || kaṯuram
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| pankā || pank || pank-
| pankā || pank || pank- || pankam
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| šaššā || šašš || šašš-
| šaššā || šašš || šašš- || šaššam
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| haftā || haft || haft-
| haftā || haft || haft- || haftam
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| ‘aṣṭā || ‘aṣṭ || ‘aṣṭ-
| ‘aṣṭā || ‘aṣṭ || ‘aṣṭ- || ‘aṣṭam
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| nawā || nō || naw-
| nawā || nō || naw- || nōm
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| ṭasā || ṭas || ṭas-
| ṭasā || ṭas || ṭas- || ṭasam
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
| ‘ayn ṭas || ‘aynā ṭasā || ‘ayn- ṭas
| ‘ayn ṭas || ‘aynā ṭasā || ‘ayn- ṭas || ‘ayn ṭasam
|-
|-
! 12
! 12
Line 547: Line 558:
|-
|-
! 13
! 13
| tarayā ṭas || tarē ṭasā || taray- ṭas
| tirayā ṭas || tirē ṭasā || tiray- ṭas
|-
|-
! 14
! 14
Line 568: Line 579:
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| colspan="2"| ṭasīn || ṭasīn-
| colspan="2"| ṭasīn || ṭasīn- || ṭasīnam
|-
|-
! 21
! 21
Line 574: Line 585:
|-
|-
! 30
! 30
| colspan="2"| tarayīn || tarayīn-
| colspan="2"| tirayīn || tirayīn-
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
Line 595: Line 606:
|-
|-
! 100
! 100
| colspan="2"| sint || sint-
| colspan="2"| sint || sint- || sintam
|-
|-
! 200
! 200
Line 601: Line 612:
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| colspan="2"| ’alf || ’alf-
| colspan="2"| ’alf || ’alf- || ’alfam
|-
|-
! 2000
! 2000
Line 607: Line 618:
|-
|-
|}
|}
Ordinal numbers are formed from simple (one-word) cardinal numbers with the suffix ''-iyy'' (feminine: ''-iyyā'') added to the number's stem.
Ordinal numbers are formed with the nisba suffix ''-iyy'' (feminine: ''-iyyā'') added to the number's stem. However, the ordinal equivalent of ''‘ayn'' "one" is ''partam'' "first". Its opposite is ''aftam'' "last".
<!--
*Adding the nisba suffix to numbers ending in ''-īn'' is proscribed, with the ordinal numbers being identical to the cardinal numbers. However, it is common to use the suffix in colloquial language.-->
<!--
As shown in the table, there are two words for "first", ''partam'' and ''’aynam''. These words can be used interchangeably
* ''partam'' -->


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Line 631: Line 647:
|-
|-
! 2 !! Triliteral root verb
! 2 !! Triliteral root verb
| 1a2a3- || -12i3-; -12u3-; -12a3- || 1i2i3-; 1u2u3-; 1a2a3- (''same vowel as imperfect stem'')
| 1a2a3- || -12i3-; -12u3-; -12a3- || 1a2i3-; 1a2u3-; 1a2a3- (''same vowel as imperfect stem'')
|-
|-
! 3 !! Quadriliteral root verbs
! 3 !! Quadriliteral root verbs
| 1a23a4- || -1a23i4- || 1a23i4-
| 1a23a4- || -1a23i4- || ''Same as imperfect stem''
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
Line 657: Line 673:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Zanahi verb conjugation
|+ Zanahi verb conjugation
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect !! Imperfect<small><sup>1</sup></small> !! Imperative
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect !! Imperfect<small><sup>1</sup></small> !! Imperative<small><sup>2</sup></small>
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| -mā || ma-
| -mā || ma- ||
|-
|-
! 2SM
! 2SM
Line 669: Line 685:
|-
|-
! 3SM
! 3SM
| -(h)ā || ya-
| -(h)ā || ya- ||
|-
|-
! 3SF
! 3SF
| -(h)ī || ya-(n)ī
| -(h)ī || ya-(n)ī ||
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| -nā || na-
| -nā || na- ||
|-
|-
! 2PM
! 2PM
Line 684: Line 700:
|-
|-
! 3PM
! 3PM
| -(h)ān || ya-(n)ān
| -(h)ān || ya-(n)ān ||
|-
|-
! 3PF
! 3PF
| -(h)īn || ya-(n)īn
| -(h)īn || ya-(n)īn ||
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 693: Line 709:


<small><sup>1</sup></small> The prefix vowel is changed to ''-u-'' instead of ''-a-'' in Arabic-style passives.
<small><sup>1</sup></small> The prefix vowel is changed to ''-u-'' instead of ''-a-'' in Arabic-style passives.
<small><sup>2</sup></small> An epenthetic ''i-'' is inserted when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster.


====Passive====
====Passive====
The passive of a verb is formed by adding the suffix ''-(a)m-'' to the stem. The addition or ommission of the ''-(a)-'' depends on phonotactics: it is added whenever necessary and dropped otherwise (which may vary even between forms with the same stem).
The passive of a verb is formed by adding the suffix ''-(a)m-'' to the stem. The addition or ommission of the ''-(a)-'' depends on phonotactics: it is added whenever necessary and dropped otherwise (which may vary even between forms with the same stem).
====Participles====
====Participles====
The active participle of a verb is formed with the suffix ''-(a)nt'' (feminine: ''-(a)ntā'') added to the perfect stem.
The active participle of a verb is formed with the suffix ''-ant'' (feminine: ''-antā'') added to the perfect stem.


The passive participle is formed with the suffix ''-tāḵ/ṯāḵ'' (feminine: ''-tāḵā/ṯāḵā'') added to the nominal stem.
The passive participle is formed with the suffix ''-taḵ/ṯaḵ'' (feminine: ''-taḵā/ṯaḵā'') added to the nominal stem.


There is also a rare future passive participle formed with the suffix ''-(a)mant'' (feminine: ''-(a)mantā'') added to the perfect stem. However, this ending is more often used to form derived nouns.
There is also a rare future passive participle formed with the suffix ''-(a)mant'' (feminine: ''-(a)mantā'') added to the perfect stem. However, this ending is more often used to form derived nouns.
====Infinitive====
====Infinitive====
The infinitive/verbal noun is formed by adding the following ending to the nominal stem: ''-tīḵ/ṯīḵ''.
The infinitive/verbal noun is formed by adding the following ending to the nominal stem: ''-tīḵ/ṯīḵ''.
Line 750: Line 769:
| Reciprocal or reflexive of above || تفاعل
| Reciprocal or reflexive of above || تفاعل
|-
|-
<!--
! 6 !! Causative
! 6 !! Causative
| 1a2-dā/ḏā- || -1i2-dā/ḏā- || 1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -12i3-dā/ḏā- || 1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Causative || أفعل
| 1a2-dā/ḏā- || -1i2-dā/ḏā- || 1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -12i3-dā/ḏā- || 1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Causative || أفعل
Line 755: Line 775:
! 7 !! Middle causative
! 7 !! Middle causative
| ha-1a2-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1i2-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -ha-12i3-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative of above; requestative || (استفعل)
| ha-1a2-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1i2-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a2a3-dā/ḏā- || -ha-12i3-dā/ḏā- || ha-1a23a4-dā/ḏā- || -ha-1a23i4-dā/ḏā- || Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative of above; requestative || (استفعل)
|-
-->
! 6 !! Causative
| 1a-na-2- || -1-n-i2- || 1a-n-2a3 || -1a-n-2i3- || 1a2a-n-3a4- || -1a2a-n-3i4- || Causative || أفعل
|-
! 7 !! Middle causative
| ha-1a-na-2- || -ha-1-n-i2- || ha-1a-n-2a3 || -ha-1a-n-2i3- || ha-12a-n-3a4- || -ha12a-n-3i4- || Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative of above; requestative |استفعل
|-
|-
|}
|}
In all cases, the nominal stem is identical to the imperfect stem unless the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster, in which case the cluster is broken up by inserting an echo of the following vowel.
In all cases, the nominal stem is identical to the imperfect stem unless the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem, in which case the cluster is broken up in accordance with the perfect stem.


====Suffixed verbs====
====Suffixed verbs====
Suffixed verbs are usually formed by adding a suffix to a nominal or (rarely) a particle. They are also used to form loan verbs. Like root verbs, they have basic and derived forms.
Suffixed verbs are usually formed by adding a suffix to a nominal or (rarely) a particle. They are also used to form loan verbs. Like root verbs, they have basic and derived forms.


Suffixed verbs always have identical perfect, imperfect, and nominal stems.
Suffixed verbs always have identical imperfect and nominal stems.


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|+ Zanahi suffixed verb formations
|+ Zanahi suffixed verb formations
! No. !! Type !! Stem
! No. !! Type !! Perfect Stem !! Imperfect/Nominal Stem
|-
|-
! 0 !! Basic
! 0 !! Basic
| -S-ē-
| S-ay- || -S-ē-
|-
|-
! 1 !! Middle
! 1 !! Middle
| -ha-S-ē-
| ha-S-ay- || -ha-S-ē-
|-
|-
! 2 !! Intensive
! 2 !! Intensive
| -S-aCC-ē-
| S-iss-ay- ||  -S-iss-ē-
|-
|-
! 3 !! Middle intensive
! 3 !! Middle intensive
| -ha-S-aCC-ē-
| ha-S-iss-ay- || -ha-S-iss-ē-
|-
|-
! 4 !! Associative
! 4 !! Associative
| -S-āC-ē-
| S-ās-ay- || -S-ās-ē-
|-
|-
! 5 !! Reciprocal
! 5 !! Reciprocal
| -ha-S-āC-ē-
| ha-S-ās-ay- || -ha-S-ās-ē-
|-
|-
! 7 !! Causative
! 6 !! Causative
| -S-ē-ḏā-
| colspan="2"| -S-ē-ḏā-
|-
|-
! 8 !! Middle causative
! 7 !! Middle causative
| -ha-S-ē-ḏā-
| colspan="2"| -ha-S-ē-ḏā-
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''
# S = base stem (without the suffix); C = final consonant of the base stem
# S = base stem (without the suffix)<!--; C = final consonant of the base stem-->


====Borrowed verbs====
====Borrowed verbs====
Line 800: Line 827:
Verbs borrowed from Arabic generally conjugate as root verbs keeping their Arabic perfect and imperfect stems (as they occur in the 3rd person masculine singular). However, causative verbs (i.e. those with the form أفعل) keep their initial glottal stop in the imperfect stem and therefore conjugate identically to quadriliteral verbs. Verbs whose perfect stems begin in a ''-w-'' that is dropped in the Arabic also do not drop it in Zanahi.
Verbs borrowed from Arabic generally conjugate as root verbs keeping their Arabic perfect and imperfect stems (as they occur in the 3rd person masculine singular). However, causative verbs (i.e. those with the form أفعل) keep their initial glottal stop in the imperfect stem and therefore conjugate identically to quadriliteral verbs. Verbs whose perfect stems begin in a ''-w-'' that is dropped in the Arabic also do not drop it in Zanahi.


The nominal stem of such Arabic-derived verbs is identical to the imperfect stem except when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem. In such a case, the initial consonant cluster is broken up by inserting an echo of the following vowel. For example ''katab-, -ktub-'' "to write" has the nominal stem ''kutub-''.
The nominal stem of such Arabic-derived verbs is identical to the imperfect stem except when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem. In such a case, the initial consonant cluster is broken up by inserting the first vowel of the perfect stem<!--an echo of the following vowel-->. For example ''katab-, -ktub-'' "to write" has the nominal stem ''katub-''.


These Arabic-derived verbs have alternative formations of the passive<!-- and participles-->: in addition to the regular formations, they can also be formed in the Arabic way. This means that the passive stems are taken from the 3rd person masculine singular, and the prefix vowel is also changed to ''-u-'' (instead of the regular ''-a-'' which always occurs in the active). Like in the active, the stem-initial glottal stop in أفعل verbs is maintained.
These Arabic-derived verbs have alternative formations of the passive<!-- and participles-->: in addition to the regular formations, they can also be formed in the Arabic way. This means that the passive stems are taken from the 3rd person masculine singular, and the prefix vowel is also changed to ''-u-'' (instead of the regular ''-a-'' which always occurs in the active). Like in the active, the stem-initial glottal stop in أفعل verbs is maintained.
<!--** The active and passive participles are formed as they are in Arabic. Non-derived verbs use the patterns ''1ā2i3-'' and ''ma12ūl-'' (and/or their variants) respectively while derived and quadriliteral verbs use the prefix ''mu-'' identically to Arabic (including the dropping of the glottal stop in أفعل verbs).-->
<!--** The active and passive participles are formed as they are in Arabic. Non-derived verbs use the patterns ''1ā2i3-'' and ''ma12ūl-'' (and/or their variants) respectively while derived and quadriliteral verbs use the prefix ''mu-'' identically to Arabic (including the dropping of the glottal stop in أفعل verbs).-->


Some Arabic-derived verbs instead use the suffix conjugation. This is more common in colloquial speech and writing, and usually happens when the verbal noun was originally borrowed from Arabic and the verb was derived from it later. However, in formal Zanahi, it is considered preferrable to backform the verb from the verbal noun instead of deriving it via the addition of a suffix.
Some Arabic-derived verbs instead use the suffix conjugation. This is more common in colloquial speech and writing, and usually happens when the verbal noun was originally borrowed from Arabic and the verb was derived from it later on. However, in formal Zanahi, it is considered preferrable to backform the verb from the verbal noun instead of deriving it via the addition of a suffix.


Verbs borrowed from Semitic languages besides Arabic are usually early borrowings that have been fully nativized. This means that they decline identically to native Zanahi verbs.
Verbs borrowed from Semitic languages besides Arabic are usually early borrowings that have been fully nativized. This means that they decline identically to native Zanahi verbs.
Line 811: Line 838:
===Particles===
===Particles===
====Prefixed particles====
====Prefixed particles====
*''ta-'': "of, that"
In the Latin transcription, prefixes are separated from the main word and from each other with hyphens.
**Attached to nominals: possessive.
*''ta-'': "of; that, who, which"
**Attached to verbs: relative.
**Attached to nominals: "of (possessive)".
**Attached to verbs: "that, who, which (relative)".
**Becomes ''ṯa-'' when used possessively and immediately preceded by the vowel-final possessed noun.
**Becomes ''ṯa-'' when used possessively and immediately preceded by the vowel-final possessed noun.
*''wa-'': "and"
*''wa-'': "and"
**Does not attach to clitic pronouns. Instead, the full forms are used.
*''ka-'': "like; that"
**Attached to nominals: "like"
**Attached to verbs: "that (forms ''that''-clauses)
*''sa-'': "with, by means of; at"
*''han-'': "the (definite article)"
**''-n-'' assimilates to a following non-guttural consonant.
**After a prefix, ''ha-'' is dropped.
**After a vowel-final preposition, ''ha-'' is dropped.
**After a consonant-final preposition, ''h-'' is dropped.
**Note that in the native script, the ''-n-'' is always written, and the ''h-'' is only dropped after prefixes. However, the Latin transcription is as above.
*''’ā-'': "to, for"


====Independent particles====
====Independent particles====
*''’aw'': "or"
*''’aw'': "or"
*''’aṯ'': "even"
====Hybrid particles====
These particles are prefixed to clitic pronouns and independent otherwise.
*''fī'': "on, upon, against"
*''maḏ'': "with, in company with"
*''’an'': "in"
*''par'': "to, towards, until"


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
The typical word order in Modern Zanahi is SVO, though other word orders are allowed.
<!--
Earlier stages of the language had a primarily VSO order, and this shows up often in set phases.-->
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Modifiers follow the noun they modify.
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Dialectal features==
===Phonology===
====Vowels====
*Preserving ''e'' and ''o'' as shortened variants of ''ē'' and ''ō''.
*Umlaut of ''ā'' into /ɛː/ in certain circumstances.
*Preservation of original /ɛː/ and/or /ɔː/ (merged with ''ā'' in standard language).
*Merger of original /ɛː/ and/or /ɔː/ into ''ē'' or ''ō'' respectively instead of ''ā''.
*Merger of ''ō'' and/or ''ē'' into ''ā''.
====Consonants====
*Unconditional sound change /p/ > /f/.
*Unconditional change /v/ > /b/ or /w/.
*Pronunciation of ''ḅ'' as non-emphatic /b/ or /p/.
*Maintaining a distinction between ''ḵ'' and ''ḫ'', and between ''ḡ'' and ''ġ''. In both sets, the first of the set is velar and the second is uvular.
*Lack of emphaticness in /x/.
*Spread of emphaticness to syllables adjacent to an emphatic consonant/vowel or even the whole word.
*One or more of the following palatalizations, either conditionally or unconditionally:
**''g'' /ɡ/ > /d͡ʒ/
**''k'' /k/ > /t͡ʃ/
**''ḵ'' /x/ > /ʃ/
**''ḡ'' /ɣ/ > /ʒ/
*Loss of interdental fricatives, which either merge with the corresponding dental stops or sibilant fricatives.
<!--
*Preservation of glottalized consonants from original PIE voiced stops.-->
*Loss of emphaticness. The emphatic consonants may merge with the corresponding plain consonants, or may remain distinct via aspiration and/or vowel quality.
===Morphology===
===Syntax===
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''haz-zaman''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''han-’artawīn''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| spring || waḥār
|-
| summer || hamān
|-
| fall || waṯah
|-
| winter || zaym
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Solar months - ''hay-yarḥān han-ḥāwiliyyā
! English !! colspan="2"| Zanahi
|-
| January || kānān han-’aftam
|-
| February || šavāṭ
|-
| March || ’āḏār
|-
| April || nīsān
|-
| May || ’iyyār
|-
| June || ḥazīrān
|-
| July || tammūz
|-
| August || ’āv
|-
| September || ’īlūl
|-
| October || tašrīn hap-partam
|-
| November || tašrīn han-’aftam
|-
| December || kānān hap-partam
|-
|}
'''Note:''' October (''tašrīn hap-partam'') is considered the first month of the year.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''haṭ-ṭaynīn ta-n-haftam''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| Sunday || han-‘ayniyy
|-
| Monday || haṭ-ṭuwiyy
|-
| Tuesday || hat-tirayiyy
|-
| Wednesday || hak-kaṯuriyy
|-
| Thursday || hap-pankiyy
|-
| Friday || haǧ-ǧum‘ā
|-
| Saturday || has-sabt
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''hab-bāqīn ta-ṭ-ṭayn''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| day || ṭayn
|-
| dawn || ’awḥā
|-
| morning || ’azar
|-
| noon || ’awq
|-
| afternoon || wašpar
|-
| evening || šaf
|-
| dusk || ṭawšā
|-
| night || naḵṭ
|-
| midnight || mayḏa ṯa-n-naḵṭ
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''ham-māṯayīn ta-z-zaman''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| second || ṭuwiyyā
|-
| minute || daqīqā
|-
| hour || sā‘ā
|-
| day || ṭayn
|-
| week || haftam
|-
| month || yarḥā
|-
| season || ’artō
|-
| year || yār
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''haẓ-ẓurūfa ṯa-z-zaman''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| now || nūnā
|-
| then ||
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier ||
|-
| soon, shortly ||
|-
| later ||
|-
| always ||
|-
| often ||
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never ||
|-
| ever ||
|-
| still, yet ||
|-
| already ||
|-
| today || haṭ-ṭayn
|-
| tonight || han-naḵṭ
|-
| yesterday ||
|-
| last night ||
|-
| tomorrow ||
|-
| tomorrow night ||
|-
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week || sā han-haftam
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
| this year || sā hay-yār
|-
| last year || paruṯ
|-
| next year ||
|}
===Colours - ''hap-paysīn''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''hap-paysīn''
! English !! Zanahi
|-
| white || ’alb; suwayṯ
|-
| grey ||
|-
| black || siyāw
|-
| red || rawḏ; ruḏr
|-
| orange || burtuqāliyy
|-
| brown || qahwiyy; bunniyy
|-
| yellow || zalē
|-
| green || ’aḫḍar
|-
| blue ||
|-
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden || ḏahabiyy
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
Line 832: Line 1,118:
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
====Standard Zanahi====
====Standard Zanahi====
<!--
'''Native script approximated with Syriac letters and Arabic diacritics:'''
'''Native script approximated with Syriac letters and Arabic diacritics:'''
<p dir="rtl">
<p dir="rtl">
ܚَܠٝܘ ܬَ݂ܢܡَّܢٝܘ ܝَܨَܢْܡَܐܢْ ܡُܟْ݂ܬِܝܢْ ܘَܚَܡَܐܟِ݂ܝܢْ ܐَܢْ ܐܢܫَّܪَܦْ݂ ܘَܢْܚُܩُܘܩْ. ܐܠܠّٰܗ ܛَܐܛَܐܗَܐܢْ ܥَܩْܠْ ܘَܨَ݀ܡِܝܪْ، ܘَܒَܪَܐ ܦِ݂ܝܗَܐܢْ ܟَܝَܗَܟَܪَܐܟَܪَܐܢْ ܣَܢܪُّܘܚْ ܬَܢܒَّܪَܐܬَ݂ܪْܬَܐ.
ܚَܠْܘَ ܬَ݂ܢܡَّܢٝܘ ܝَܨَܢْܡَܐܢْ ܡُܟْ݂ܬِܝܢْ ܘَܚَܡَܐܟِ݂ܝܢْ ܐَܢْ ܐܢܫَّܪَܦْ݂ ܘَܢْܚُܩُܘܩْ. ܐَܠܠّٰܗْ ܛَܐܗَܐܢْ ܥَܩْܠْ ܘَܨَ݂݁ܡِܝܪْ، ܘَܒَܪَܐ ܦِ݂ܝܗَܐܢْ ܟَܝَܗَܟَܪَܐܟِܪَܐܢْ ܣَܢܪُّܘܚَ ܬَ݂ܢܒَّܪَܐܬَ݂ܪْܬَܐܬْ݂.
</p>
</p>
-->
'''Transliteration:''' ''Ḥalwa ṯa-m-manō yaṣanmān muḵtīn wa-ḥamāḵīn ‘an aš-šaraf wa-n-ḥuqūq. Allāh ṭā-hān ‘aql wa-ḍamīr, wa-barā fī-hān ka-yahakarākarān sa-r-rūḥa ṯa-b-barāṯartā.''
<!--
<!--
'''IPA:''' [ħælwæ θæm.mænoː jæsˁɑnmæːn muχtʰiːn wæħæmæːχiːn ʔæn‿æʃ.ʃæɾˁɑf wæn.ħuquːq ‖ æɫːɑːh tˁɑːhæːn ʕæql wæd͡ɮɑmiːɾ | wæbæɾˁɑː fiːhæːn kæjæhækʰæɾˁɑːkʰæɾˁɑːn sæɾˁ.ɾˁuːħæ θæb.bæɾˁɑːθæɾˁtʰæː]-->
'''Native script approximated with Phoenician letters and Arabic diacritics:'''-->
<p dir="rtl">
<!--
𐤇𐤋𐤅 𐤍𐤌𐤍𐤅 𐤉𐤑𐤍𐤌𐤀𐤍 𐤌𐤊݂𐤕𐤉𐤍 𐤅𐤇𐤌𐤀𐤊݂𐤉𐤍 𐤀𐤍 𐤀𐤍𐤔𐤓𐤐 𐤅𐤍𐤇𐤒𐤅𐤒. 𐤀𐤋𐤋𐤄 𐤈𐤀𐤄𐤀𐤍 𐤏𐤒𐤋 𐤅𐤑݂𐤌𐤉𐤓 𐤅𐤁𐤓𐤀 𐤐݂𐤉𐤄𐤀𐤍 𐤊𐤉𐤄𐤊𐤓𐤀𐤊𐤓𐤀𐤍 𐤎𐤍𐤓𐤅𐤇 𐤕݂𐤍𐤁𐤐𐤀𐤕݂𐤓𐤕𐤀.-->
<!--
חלו תּנםנו יצנםאן םכּתין וחםאכּין אן הנשרףּ ונחקוק. אללה טאהאן עקל וצּםיר، וברא פּיהאן כיהכראכראן סנרוח תּנבראתּרתא.-->
</p>
 
'''Transliteration:''' ''Ḥalwa ṯa-m-manō yaṣanmān muḵtīn wa-ḥamāḵīn ‘an aš-šaraf wa-n-ḥuqūq. Allāh ṭā-hān ‘aql wa-ḍamīr, wa-barā fī-hān ka-yahakarākirān sa-r-rūḥa ṯa-b-barāṯartāṯ.''
 
'''IPA:''' /ħalwa θam.manoː jasˁanmaːn muxtiːn waħamaːxiːn an aʃ.ʃaraf wan.ħuquːq ‖ ʔaɫːaːh tˁaːhaːn ʕaql wad͡ɮamiːr | wabaraː fiːhaːn kajahakaraːkiraːn sar.ruːħa θab.baraːθartaːθ/
 
[ˈħælwæ‿θæm.ˈmænoː jæsˁɑnˈmæːn muχˈtʰiːn wæħæmæːˈχiːn ʔæn‿æʃ.ˈʃæɾˁɑf wæn.ħuˈquːq ‖ ʔæˈɫːɑːh ˈt̪ˁɑːhæːn ˈʕæql wæd͡ɮɑˈmiːɾ | wæˈbæɾˁɑː ˈfiːhæːn kæjæhækʰæˈɾˁɑːkʰiɾˁɑːn sæɾˁ.ˈɾˁuːħæ‿θæb.bæɾˁɑːθæɾˁˈt̪ʰæːθ]


'''Gloss:''' all of-the-people they_are_born free_PL and equal_PL in the-dignity and the-rights. Allah gave-them reason and conscience, and it_is_obligatory on-them that-they_mutually_act_with_each_other in-the-spirit of-the-brotherhood.
'''Gloss:''' all of-the-people they_are_born free_PL and equal_PL in the-dignity and the-rights. Allah gave-them reason and conscience, and it_is_obligatory on-them that-they_mutually_act_with_each_other in-the-spirit of-the-brotherhood.
Line 846: Line 1,141:
<!--
<!--
====Arabized Zanahi====
====Arabized Zanahi====
  <p dir="rtl"> حَلْوُ انمَّنَا يَصْنَامُونَ أَحْرَارًا وَحَمَاخِينَ أَنِ انشَّرَفِ وَانْحُقُوقِ اللهُ طَاطَاهُمْ عَقْلًا وَضَمِيرًا وَبَرَا فِيهِمْ كَيَهَكَرَاكَرُوا سَرُوحِ انبَّرَاثَرْتَاةِ.</p>
  <p dir="rtl"> يُصْنى حَلْوُ انمَّنَا أَحْرَارًا وَحَمَاخِينَ أَنِ انشَّرَفِ وَانْحُقُوقِ. طَاءَهُمْ اللهُ عَقْلًا وَضَمِيرًا، وَفِيهِمْ كَيَتَكَارَوْا سَرُوحِ انبَّرَاثَرْتَاةِ.</p>
 
'''Transliteration:''' ''Yuṣnā ḥalwu 'm-manā 'aḥrāran wa ḥamāḵīna ‘ani 'š-šarafi wa-n-ḥuqūq. Ṭā’a-humu 'Llāhu ‘aqlan wa ḍamīrā, wa-fīhim ka-yatakāraw sa-rūḥi 'b-barāṯartāh.''-->
'''Transliteration:''' ''Ḥalwu 'm-manā yaṣnāmūna 'aḥrāran wa ḥamāḵīna ‘ani 'š-šarafi wa-n-ḥuqūq<sub>i</sub>. Allāhu ṭāṭā-hum ‘aqlan wa ḍamīra<sub>n</sub>, wa barā fīhim ka-yahakarākarū sa-rūḥi 'b-barāṯartā<sub>ti</sub>.''-->


==Other resources==
==Other resources==

Latest revision as of 08:38, 26 February 2024

Zanahi (native: zanāhiyy, haṭ-ṭaṣwā haz-zanāhiyyā) is an Indo-European language with a high degree of Semitic influence.

Zanahi
zanāhiyy
Pronunciation[zænæːˈhijː, zæˈnæːhiː]
Created byShariifka
Early form

Introduction

Zanahi is a satem language.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Zanahi
Labial Dental Denti-alveolar Post-alv./
Palatal 		Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain emphatic plain emphatic
Nasal /m/ /n/
Stop voiceless /p/ /pˁ ~ bˁ/ /t̪/ /t̪ˁ/ /t͡ʃ/ /k/ /q/ /ʔ/
voiced /b/ /d̪/ /d͡ɮˤ/ /d͡ʒ/ /ɡ/
Fricative voiceless /f/ /θ/ /s/ /sˤ/ /ʃ/ /x ~ χ/ /ħ/ /h/
voiced /v/ /ð/ /z/ /ðˤ/ /ʒ/ /ɣ ~ ʁ/ /ʕ/
Trill /r/
Approximant /l/ /j/ /w/

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Zanahi
Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Close /i/ /u/ /iː/ /uː/
Mid /eː/ /oː/
Open /a/ /aː/
Diphthongs /aw/, /aj/

Orthography

Zanahi orthography (consonants)
Letter Scientific transliteration Alternative transliterations IPA Name Remarks
’ ʾ; ʔ; ˀ; 2 /ʔ/ ’alpā
b /b/ bāṯā
v ḇ; bh /v/ vāṯā
ḅ ṗ; b'; p' /pˁ ~ bˁ/ ḅāṯā
g /ɡ/ gamlā
ḡ gh; ɣ; ġ /ɣ ~ ʁ/ ḡamlā
ǧ j /d͡ʒ/ ǧamlā Used in Arabic and other foreign loanwords.
d /d̪/ daltā
ḏ dh; ð /ð/ ḏaltā
h /h/ hā’ā
w /w/ wawwā
z /z/ zānā
ž zh /ʒ/ žānā Used in non-Semitic loanwords.
ḥ ħ; h'; 7 /ħ/ ḥāṯā
ḫ kh; ch; x; 7' /x ~ χ/ ḫāṯā Used in Arabic and other early Semitic loanwords.
ṭ t'; 6 /t̪ˁ/ ṭāṯā
ẓ z'; dh'; ð̣; 6' /ðˁ/ ẓāṯā Used in Arabic loanwords.
y /j/ yāḏā
k /k/ kappā
ḵ kh; ch; x /x ~ χ/ ḵappā
č ch; tsh /t͡ʃ/ čappā Used in non-Semitic loanwords.
l /l/ lamdā
m /m/ māmā
n /n/ nūnā
s /s/ samkā
ʻ ʿ; c; ᶜ; ʕ; ˁ; "; 3 /ʕ/ ʻānā
ġ gh; ɣ; 3' /ɣ ~ ʁ/ ġānā Used in Arabic and other early Semitic loanwords.
p /p/ pā’ā
f p̄; ph /f/ fā’ā
ṣ s'; 9 /sˁ/ ṣāḏā
ḍ d'; 9' /d͡ɮˁ/ ḍāḏā
q ḳ /q/ qāfā
r /r/ rāšā
š sh /ʃ/ šannā
t /t̪/ tawwā
ṯ th; θ; þ /θ/ ṯawwā
Zanahi orthography (vowels)
Grapheme Scientific transliteration Alternative transliterations IPA Name Remarks
a /a/ lawšā Literally "opening".
i /i/ barqā Literally "breaking".
u /u/ ‘anzā Literally "narrowing".
e ĕ /e/ barqā salīṯā Literally "sloped breaking".
In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
o ŏ /o/ ’anzā salīṯā Literally "sloped narrowing".
In native words, only occurs in combination with a mater lectionis.
ā aa; â /aː/ ’alpā ṭalgā Literally "long ’alpā".
â aa; ā /aː/ lawšā ṭalgā Literally "long opening".
Used in a few words.
ē ee; ea; ei; ey; ê; e /eː/ yāḏā salīṯā Literally "sloped yāḏā".
ī ii; ee; iy; î /iː/ yāḏā ṭalgā Literally "long yāḏā".
ō oo; oa; ou; ow; ô; o /oː/ wawwā salīṯā Literally "sloped wawwā".
ū uu; oo; uw; û /uː/ wawwā ṭalgā Literally "long wawwā".
aw au /aw/ wawwā milṭā Literally "soft wawwā".
ay ai /aj/ yāḏā milṭā Literally "soft yāḏā".
C C kīlā Literally "resting".
Used to indicate that a consonant is not followed by a vowel.
CC Cː ḅalīṯā Literally "strengthened".
Used to indicate that a consonant is geminated.

Prosody

Stress

For the purposes of stress, a word can be categorized into two categories: a word with one or more heavy syllables and a word without a heavy syllable. Note that suffixes are treated as part of the word but prefixed particles are excluded.

In words with at least one heavy syllable, the last heavy syllable is stressed provided that it is one of the last three syllables of the word. Otherwise, the third last syllable is stressed.

If a word does not have any heavy syllables, the first syllable is stressed.

For definition of light and heavy syllables, see the phonotactics section below.

In traditional poetry, usual word stress is forgone and instead is determined by meter.

Intonation

Phonotactics

The following syllable structures are allowed (C = consonant, V̆ = short vowel, V̄ = long vowel or diphthong):

  • CV̆
  • CV̄
  • CV̆C
  • CV̄C (word-finally, rare otherwise)
  • CV̆CC (word-finally only)
  • CV̄CC (word-finally only, rare)

CV̆ syllables regardless of position as well as word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are considered light. Any other syllable structure is considered heavy. Exceptionally, the suffixed second- and third-person plural pronouns are treated as light.

Note that in traditional poetry, word-final CV̆C and CV̄ syllables are treated as heavy, and only CV̆ syllables are considered light regardless of position.

Allophony

The vowel /a/ (whether long, short, or part of a diphthong) has two allophones. It is pronounced [ɑ] after the consonants ⟨ḅ, ḡ, ḫ, ṭ, ẓ, ḵ, ġ, ṣ, ḍ, q, r⟩ and [æ] otherwise. The other vowels also have backed allophones after the above consonants, but the difference is less noticeable.

The sequences iyy and uww can optionally be pronounced as if they were written *-īy- and *-ūw- respectively word-internally, or *-ī and *-ū respectively word-finally.

Morphophonology

Lenition

Non-emphatic plosives historically underwent lenition to fricatives (analogous to "begadkefat" in Aramaic and Biblical Hebrew) in certain environments.

Consonants that undergo lenition
Un-lenited Lenited
b /b/ v /v/
g /ɡ/ ḡ /ɣ ~ ʁ/
d /d/ ḏ /ð/
k /k/ ḵ /x ~ χ/
p /p/ f /f/
t /t/ ṯ /θ/

Lenition is no longer productive, but occurs in grammatical words and morphemes (most often in suffixes).

Vowel breaking

This refers to the "breaking up" of ā, ē and ō into a’, ay and aw respectively before vowel-initial suffixes.

The vowels -ī- and -ū- similarly "break" into -iy- and -uw- before vowel-initial suffixes.

Vowel shortening

When followed by two consonants, a long vowel is shortened.

The vowels -ē- and -ō- are shortened to -i- and -u- respectively.

Epenthetic vowel

When a word would begin in a consonant cluster, an epenthetic vowel (usually i-) is inserted. This epenthetic vowel is dropped in the same circumstances as the -a- of the definite article. When it is not dropped, the epenthetic vowel is pronounced with a preceding glottal stop. However, the glottal stop is usually ommitted from transcription in order to make it clear that the vowel is epenthetic.

Morphology

Like in Arabic, Zanahi words are traditionally classified into three categories: nominals, verbs, and particles.

Nominals

Pronouns

Personal pronouns
Zanahi personal pronouns
Person/
Number		 Independent Dependent
1S ’ammā -mā
2SM ’antā -tā/-ṯā
2SF ’antī -tī/ṯī
3SM hattā -hā
3SF hattī -hī
1P ’annā -nā
2PM ’antān -tān/ṯān
2PF ’antīn -tīn/ṯīn
3PM hattān -hān
3PF hattīn -hīn
Demonstrative pronouns
Zanahi demonstratives
Distance Singular Plural
masc. fem. masc. fem.
Near sā sī sān sīn
Far tā tī tān tīn

Nouns and adjectives

Nouns do not decline for case.

Consonant-final singular nouns have a construct state formed by adding a final -a. If the noun ends in a vowel, it does not change. Plural nouns also do not change unless they are broken plurals

There are two genders: masculine and feminine.The feminine is most often marked with the ending -ā.

There are two numbers: singular and plural.

Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in gender and definiteness.

The definite article is han-, which is prefixed to the noun/adjective. Before a non-guttural consonant (i.e. any consonant besides ’, h, ‘, ḥ, ġ, ḫ, ḡ, ḵ), the -n- is dropped and the first consonant of the noun/verb is geminated. After a prefix, the ha- is dropped. After a preposition, ha- or h- is dropped if the preposition ends in a vowel or consonant respectively.

There is no indefinite article.

Below is an example declension for the adjective bān "clear":

Declension of bān "clear"
Gender State Singular Plural
indef. def. indef. def.
Masculine Absolute bān hab-bān bānīn hab-bānīn
Construct bāna hab-bāna
Feminine Absolute bānā hab-bānā bānān hab-bānān
Construct

Adverbs

Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives or nouns with the suffix -ā.

Numerals

Zanahi numerals
Symbol Cardinal number Stem Fraction
masc. fem.
0 ṣifr ṣifr- —
1 ‘ayn ‘aynā ‘ayn- daruww
2 ṭuwā ṭuw- hām
3 tirayā tirē tiray- tirēm
4 kaṯurā kaṯur kaṯur- kaṯuram
5 pankā pank pank- pankam
6 šaššā šašš šašš- šaššam
7 haftā haft haft- haftam
8 ‘aṣṭā ‘aṣṭ ‘aṣṭ- ‘aṣṭam
9 nawā nō naw- nōm
10 ṭasā ṭas ṭas- ṭasam
11 ‘ayn ṭas ‘aynā ṭasā ‘ayn- ṭas ‘ayn ṭasam
12 ṭuwā ṭas ṭuwā ṭasā ṭuw- ṭas
13 tirayā ṭas tirē ṭasā tiray- ṭas
14 kaṯurā ṭas kaṯur ṭasā kaṯur- ṭas
15 pankā ṭas pank ṭasā pank- ṭas
16 šaššā ṭas šašš ṭasā šašš- ṭas
17 haftā ṭas haft ṭasā haft- ṭas
18 ‘aṣṭā ṭas ‘aṣṭ ṭasā ‘aṣṭ- ṭas
19 nawā ṭas nō ṭasā naw- ṭas
20 ṭasīn ṭasīn- ṭasīnam
21 ‘ayn wa-ṭasīn ‘aynā wa-ṭasīn ‘ayn- wa-ṭasīn
30 tirayīn tirayīn-
40 kaṯurīn kaṯurīn-
50 pankīn pankīn-
60 šaššīn šaššīn-
70 haftīn haftīn-
80 ‘aṣṭīn ‘aṣṭīn-
90 nawīn nawīn-
100 sint sint- sintam
200 ṭuwā sintīn ṭuwā sint-
1000 ’alf ’alf- ’alfam
2000 ṭuwā ’alfīn ṭuwā ’alf-

Ordinal numbers are formed with the nisba suffix -iyy (feminine: -iyyā) added to the number's stem. However, the ordinal equivalent of ‘ayn "one" is partam "first". Its opposite is aftam "last".

Verbs

Types of verbs

There are 5 main types of verbs:

  1. Biliteral root verbs - have 2 root consonants
  2. Triliteral root verbs - have 3 root consonants
  3. Quadriliteral root verbs - have 4 root consonants
  4. Derived root verbs - verbs derived from the above with a certain pattern
  5. Suffixed verbs - verbs formed with an unchanging stem followed by a suffix

Stems

Verbs have two finite stems: perfect and imperfect. Additionally, there is a nominal stem used to form some derived nouns and adjectives.

The formation of the stems depends on the type of verb.

The table below summarizes the formation for regular primary root verbs. For derived root verbs and suffixed verbs, see the relevant sections below.

Zanahi verb stem formation
No. Type Perfect stem Imperfect stem Nominal stem
1 Biliteral root verbs 1a2- -1i2-; -1u2-; -1a2- Same as imperfect stem
2 Triliteral root verb 1a2a3- -12i3-; -12u3-; -12a3- 1a2i3-; 1a2u3-; 1a2a3- (same vowel as imperfect stem)
3 Quadriliteral root verbs 1a23a4- -1a23i4- Same as imperfect stem

Notes:

  1. Legend:
    • 1, 2, 3, 4: represent the root consonants
  2. If a consonant is y or w, any non-stem-initial occurance of expected Ci, Cu, iC or uC is replaced by the corresponding long vowel (ī and ū respectively for y and w). Stem-initially, the vowel is instead dropped. As for expected aCa and (stem-finally in the imperfect and nominal stems) -aC, it becomes ē or ō for y and w respectively.
  3. It is possible for an underlying archphoneme /A/ (from original laryngeals) to take the place of any of the root consonants except the first. In such a case, that consonant and its adjacent vowel(s) are combined into -ā- in all cases.

Simple tenses

There are three simple tenses: the perfect, imperfect, and imperative (which use the perfect, imperfect, and imperfect stems respectively). The imperative only exists in the second person.

Zanahi verb conjugation
Person/
Number		 Perfect Imperfect1 Imperative2
1S -mā ma-
2SM -tā/ṯā ta- (i)-
2SF -tī/ṯī ta-(n)ī (i)-(n)ī
3SM -(h)ā ya-
3SF -(h)ī ya-(n)ī
1P -nā na-
2PM -tān/ṯān ta-(n)ān (i)-(n)ān
2PF -tīn/ṯīn ta-(n)īn (i)-(n)īn
3PM -(h)ān ya-(n)ān
3PF -(h)īn ya-(n)īn

Notes:

1 The prefix vowel is changed to -u- instead of -a- in Arabic-style passives.

2 An epenthetic i- is inserted when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster.

Passive

The passive of a verb is formed by adding the suffix -(a)m- to the stem. The addition or ommission of the -(a)- depends on phonotactics: it is added whenever necessary and dropped otherwise (which may vary even between forms with the same stem).

Participles

The active participle of a verb is formed with the suffix -ant (feminine: -antā) added to the perfect stem.

The passive participle is formed with the suffix -taḵ/ṯaḵ (feminine: -taḵā/ṯaḵā) added to the nominal stem.

There is also a rare future passive participle formed with the suffix -(a)mant (feminine: -(a)mantā) added to the perfect stem. However, this ending is more often used to form derived nouns.

Infinitive

The infinitive/verbal noun is formed by adding the following ending to the nominal stem: -tīḵ/ṯīḵ.

The feminine of the infinitive suffix, -tīḵā/ṯīḵā, is used to form an "instance noun" - i.e. a noun referring to an instance of the verb.

Other derived nouns

  • The agent noun is formed with the ending -tar/ṯar (feminine: -tarā/ṯarā) added to the nominal stem.
  • The instrument noun is formed with the ending -dar/ḏar added to the nominal stem.

Tenses

Derived root verbs

Zanahi derived verbs
No. Form name Usual formation Usual meaning Closest Arabic equivalent(s) (for reference)
Biliteral Triliteral Quadriliteral
Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect
1 Middle ha-1a2- -ha-1i2- ha-12a3- -ha-12i3- ha-1a23a4- -ha-1a23i3- Middle, autobenefactive, reflexive, or anticausative انفعل؛ افتعل
2 Intensive 1a2-1a2- -1a2-1i2- 1a22a3- -1a22i3- 1a2a33as- -1a2a33is- Intensive فعّل
3 Middle intensive ha-1a2-1a2- -ha-1a2-1i2- ha-1a22a3- -ha-1a22i3- ha-12a33a4- -ha-12a33i4- Middle, reflexive, or anticausative of above تفعّل
4 Associative 1a2-ā-1a2- -1a2-ā-1i2- 1ā2a3- -1ā2i3- 1a2ā3a4- -12ā3i4- Assosiative or adversative فاعل
5 Reciprocal ha-1a2-ā-1a2- -ha-1a2-ā-1i2- ha-1ā2a3- -ha-1ā2i3- ha-1a2ā3a4- -ha-12ā3i4- Reciprocal or reflexive of above تفاعل
6 Causative 1a-na-2- -1-n-i2- 1a-n-2a3 -1a-n-2i3- 1a2a-n-3a4- -1a2a-n-3i4- Causative أفعل
7 Middle causative ha-1a-na-2- -ha-1-n-i2- ha-1a-n-2a3 -ha-1a-n-2i3- ha-12a-n-3a4- -ha12a-n-3i4- استفعل

In all cases, the nominal stem is identical to the imperfect stem unless the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem, in which case the cluster is broken up in accordance with the perfect stem.

Suffixed verbs

Suffixed verbs are usually formed by adding a suffix to a nominal or (rarely) a particle. They are also used to form loan verbs. Like root verbs, they have basic and derived forms.

Suffixed verbs always have identical imperfect and nominal stems.

Zanahi suffixed verb formations
No. Type Perfect Stem Imperfect/Nominal Stem
0 Basic S-ay- -S-ē-
1 Middle ha-S-ay- -ha-S-ē-
2 Intensive S-iss-ay- -S-iss-ē-
3 Middle intensive ha-S-iss-ay- -ha-S-iss-ē-
4 Associative S-ās-ay- -S-ās-ē-
5 Reciprocal ha-S-ās-ay- -ha-S-ās-ē-
6 Causative -S-ē-ḏā-
7 Middle causative -ha-S-ē-ḏā-

Notes:

  1. S = base stem (without the suffix)

Borrowed verbs

Verbs borrowed from non-Semitic languages usually follow the suffixed conjugation.

Verbs borrowed from Arabic generally conjugate as root verbs keeping their Arabic perfect and imperfect stems (as they occur in the 3rd person masculine singular). However, causative verbs (i.e. those with the form أفعل) keep their initial glottal stop in the imperfect stem and therefore conjugate identically to quadriliteral verbs. Verbs whose perfect stems begin in a -w- that is dropped in the Arabic also do not drop it in Zanahi.

The nominal stem of such Arabic-derived verbs is identical to the imperfect stem except when the imperfect stem begins in a consonant cluster that is not present in the perfect stem. In such a case, the initial consonant cluster is broken up by inserting the first vowel of the perfect stem. For example katab-, -ktub- "to write" has the nominal stem katub-.

These Arabic-derived verbs have alternative formations of the passive: in addition to the regular formations, they can also be formed in the Arabic way. This means that the passive stems are taken from the 3rd person masculine singular, and the prefix vowel is also changed to -u- (instead of the regular -a- which always occurs in the active). Like in the active, the stem-initial glottal stop in أفعل verbs is maintained.

Some Arabic-derived verbs instead use the suffix conjugation. This is more common in colloquial speech and writing, and usually happens when the verbal noun was originally borrowed from Arabic and the verb was derived from it later on. However, in formal Zanahi, it is considered preferrable to backform the verb from the verbal noun instead of deriving it via the addition of a suffix.

Verbs borrowed from Semitic languages besides Arabic are usually early borrowings that have been fully nativized. This means that they decline identically to native Zanahi verbs.

Particles

Prefixed particles

In the Latin transcription, prefixes are separated from the main word and from each other with hyphens.

  • ta-: "of; that, who, which"
    • Attached to nominals: "of (possessive)".
    • Attached to verbs: "that, who, which (relative)".
    • Becomes ṯa- when used possessively and immediately preceded by the vowel-final possessed noun.
  • wa-: "and"
    • Does not attach to clitic pronouns. Instead, the full forms are used.
  • ka-: "like; that"
    • Attached to nominals: "like"
    • Attached to verbs: "that (forms that-clauses)
  • sa-: "with, by means of; at"
  • han-: "the (definite article)"
    • -n- assimilates to a following non-guttural consonant.
    • After a prefix, ha- is dropped.
    • After a vowel-final preposition, ha- is dropped.
    • After a consonant-final preposition, h- is dropped.
    • Note that in the native script, the -n- is always written, and the h- is only dropped after prefixes. However, the Latin transcription is as above.
  • ’ā-: "to, for"

Independent particles

  • ’aw: "or"
  • ’aṯ: "even"

Hybrid particles

These particles are prefixed to clitic pronouns and independent otherwise.

  • fī: "on, upon, against"
  • maḏ: "with, in company with"
  • ’an: "in"
  • par: "to, towards, until"

Syntax

Constituent order

The typical word order in Modern Zanahi is SVO, though other word orders are allowed.

Noun phrase

Modifiers follow the noun they modify.

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Dialectal features

Phonology

Vowels

  • Preserving e and o as shortened variants of ē and ō.
  • Umlaut of ā into /ɛː/ in certain circumstances.
  • Preservation of original /ɛː/ and/or /ɔː/ (merged with ā in standard language).
  • Merger of original /ɛː/ and/or /ɔː/ into ē or ō respectively instead of ā.
  • Merger of ō and/or ē into ā.

Consonants

  • Unconditional sound change /p/ > /f/.
  • Unconditional change /v/ > /b/ or /w/.
  • Pronunciation of ḅ as non-emphatic /b/ or /p/.
  • Maintaining a distinction between ḵ and ḫ, and between ḡ and ġ. In both sets, the first of the set is velar and the second is uvular.
  • Lack of emphaticness in /x/.
  • Spread of emphaticness to syllables adjacent to an emphatic consonant/vowel or even the whole word.
  • One or more of the following palatalizations, either conditionally or unconditionally:
    • g /ɡ/ > /d͡ʒ/
    • k /k/ > /t͡ʃ/
    • ḵ /x/ > /ʃ/
    • ḡ /ɣ/ > /ʒ/
  • Loss of interdental fricatives, which either merge with the corresponding dental stops or sibilant fricatives.
  • Loss of emphaticness. The emphatic consonants may merge with the corresponding plain consonants, or may remain distinct via aspiration and/or vowel quality.

Morphology

Syntax

Vocabulary

Time - haz-zaman

Seasons - han-’artawīn
English Zanahi
spring waḥār
summer hamān
fall waṯah
winter zaym
Solar months - hay-yarḥān han-ḥāwiliyyā
English Zanahi
January kānān han-’aftam
February šavāṭ
March ’āḏār
April nīsān
May ’iyyār
June ḥazīrān
July tammūz
August ’āv
September ’īlūl
October tašrīn hap-partam
November tašrīn han-’aftam
December kānān hap-partam

Note: October (tašrīn hap-partam) is considered the first month of the year.

Days of the week - haṭ-ṭaynīn ta-n-haftam
English Zanahi
Sunday han-‘ayniyy
Monday haṭ-ṭuwiyy
Tuesday hat-tirayiyy
Wednesday hak-kaṯuriyy
Thursday hap-pankiyy
Friday haǧ-ǧum‘ā
Saturday has-sabt
Parts of the day - hab-bāqīn ta-ṭ-ṭayn
English Zanahi
day ṭayn
dawn ’awḥā
morning ’azar
noon ’awq
afternoon wašpar
evening šaf
dusk ṭawšā
night naḵṭ
midnight mayḏa ṯa-n-naḵṭ
Units of time - ham-māṯayīn ta-z-zaman
English Zanahi
second ṭuwiyyā
minute daqīqā
hour sā‘ā
day ṭayn
week haftam
month yarḥā
season ’artō
year yār
Time adverbs - haẓ-ẓurūfa ṯa-z-zaman
English Zanahi
now nūnā
then
recently, a short time ago
earlier
soon, shortly
later
always
often
sometimes
rarely
never
ever
still, yet
already
today haṭ-ṭayn
tonight han-naḵṭ
yesterday
last night
tomorrow
tomorrow night
before yesterday
two nights ago
after tomorrow
this week sā han-haftam
last week
next week
this year sā hay-yār
last year paruṯ
next year

Colours - hap-paysīn

Colours - hap-paysīn
English Zanahi
white ’alb; suwayṯ
grey
black siyāw
red rawḏ; ruḏr
orange burtuqāliyy
brown qahwiyy; bunniyy
yellow zalē
green ’aḫḍar
blue
pink
purple
golden ḏahabiyy

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Standard Zanahi

Native script approximated with Syriac letters and Arabic diacritics:

ܚَܠْܘَ ܬَ݂ܢܡَّܢٝܘ ܝَܨَܢْܡَܐܢْ ܡُܟْ݂ܬِܝܢْ ܘَܚَܡَܐܟِ݂ܝܢْ ܐَܢْ ܐܢܫَّܪَܦْ݂ ܘَܢْܚُܩُܘܩْ. ܐَܠܠّٰܗْ ܛَܐܗَܐܢْ ܥَܩْܠْ ܘَܨَ݂݁ܡِܝܪْ، ܘَܒَܪَܐ ܦِ݂ܝܗَܐܢْ ܟَܝَܗَܟَܪَܐܟِܪَܐܢْ ܣَܢܪُّܘܚَ ܬَ݂ܢܒَّܪَܐܬَ݂ܪْܬَܐܬْ݂.

Transliteration: Ḥalwa ṯa-m-manō yaṣanmān muḵtīn wa-ḥamāḵīn ‘an aš-šaraf wa-n-ḥuqūq. Allāh ṭā-hān ‘aql wa-ḍamīr, wa-barā fī-hān ka-yahakarākirān sa-r-rūḥa ṯa-b-barāṯartāṯ.

IPA: /ħalwa θam.manoː jasˁanmaːn muxtiːn waħamaːxiːn an aʃ.ʃaraf wan.ħuquːq ‖ ʔaɫːaːh tˁaːhaːn ʕaql wad͡ɮamiːr | wabaraː fiːhaːn kajahakaraːkiraːn sar.ruːħa θab.baraːθartaːθ/

[ˈħælwæ‿θæm.ˈmænoː jæsˁɑnˈmæːn muχˈtʰiːn wæħæmæːˈχiːn ʔæn‿æʃ.ˈʃæɾˁɑf wæn.ħuˈquːq ‖ ʔæˈɫːɑːh ˈt̪ˁɑːhæːn ˈʕæql wæd͡ɮɑˈmiːɾ | wæˈbæɾˁɑː ˈfiːhæːn kæjæhækʰæˈɾˁɑːkʰiɾˁɑːn sæɾˁ.ˈɾˁuːħæ‿θæb.bæɾˁɑːθæɾˁˈt̪ʰæːθ]

Gloss: all of-the-people they_are_born free_PL and equal_PL in the-dignity and the-rights. Allah gave-them reason and conscience, and it_is_obligatory on-them that-they_mutually_act_with_each_other in-the-spirit of-the-brotherhood.


Other resources

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Zanahi&oldid=360674"