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{{construction}}


'''[[Socovíc/Socovíc|Vy górov en socovíto]]'''
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = socovíc/socovija lesán
|region =
|speakers = 393,000
|date = 2013
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam1=[[w:Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
|fam2=[[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=North Semitic
|script=[[w:Latin script|Latin]]
}}
==todo==
*[[Socovíc/Lexicon]]
**''túr'' instead of {{recon|''fúr''}}
**''cedor, cedr-'' instead of {{recon|''oroz'', ''orz-''}}
==Background==
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' ({{PAGENAME}}: ''socovíc'' /ˈsotsoviːts/ or ''socovija lesán'' /ˈsotsovija ˈlesaːn/), sometimes called '''Sotsovian''' in English, is a Semitic language in the [[w:Balkan sprachbund|Balkan Sprachbund]], spoken in the nation of Mostsev (''Moscév''). A North Semitic language, it diverges in many ways from Central Semitic tongues such as Arabic, Aramaic and Hebrew - it preserves archaic features that have not survived in Central Semitic languages, as well as some innovations in its grammar. North Semitic is thought to be basically a quasi-Central Semitic dialect that separated very early from the rest of Central Semitic. The name of the language, ''socovíc'', seems to have stemmed from {{recon|√s-t-w}}, a root meaning 'north' in {{PAGENAME}} (cf. Hebrew {{heb|סְתָו}} ''săṯâw'' 'winter'). Like its Semitic relatives, {{PAGENAME}} is a fusional, templatic language with an accusative alignment.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="2"|
! | Labial
! | Dental
! |Alveolar
! | Retroflex
! | Palatal
! | Velar
! | Uvular
! | Glottal
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
|
| '''n''' /n/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''p''' /p/
|
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
| '''k''' /k/
| '''q''' /q/
| (/ʔ/)
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' /b/
|
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''f''' /f/
| '''þ''' /θ/
| '''s''' /s/
| '''š''' /ʂ/
|
| '''ḫ''' /x/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''z''' /z/
| '''ž''' /ʐ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Affricate
|
|
| '''c''' /ts/
| '''č''' /ʈʂ/
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
|
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|
|
| '''l''' /l/
|
| '''j''' /j/
|
|
|
|}
====Allophony====
If a word begins with a vowel, a glottal stop is added before it.
Obstruents followed by an obstruent assimilate to the voicing of the following obstruent.
===Vowels===
====Oral====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="4" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! colspan="2" | unrounded
! colspan="2" | rounded
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/
| '''í''' /iː/
|
|
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ú''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /e̞/
| '''é''' /e̞ː/
| '''y''' /ø/
| '''ý''' /øː/
| '''o''' /ɤ/
| '''ó''' /o̞ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
| '''ě''' /æ&#797;/
| '''ě''' /æ&#797;ː/
|
|
| '''a''' /ɑ/
| '''á''' /ɑː/
|}
====Nasal====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |Mid
|
| '''ę''' /ɛ̃ː/
|
|
|
| '''ǫ''' /ɔ̃ː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
===Stress===
Stress always falls on the first syllable of a word.
==Diachronics==
===STRESS===
Initially Arabic-like, then stress shifts leftward (before "Proto-/Old {{PAGENAME}}" stage), resulting in the loss of the final nasal elements in dual and plural endings
*base cases: {{recon|kabī́ra}}; {{recon|kátaba}}; {{recon|nawlū́da}} (when > {{recon|náwlūda}}?)
*generalize the rule "start from the left to determine syllable weight":
**only the first 2 syllables may be stressed
**['''H''' L; [L '''H'''; [H '''H'''; ['''L''' L
===Vowels===
====PSem to PNSem====
*Word-final ''-i'' dropped; this triggers the generalization of diptotes and the fronting of the overall consonant inventory.
*{{recon|āN *īN *ūN}} > overlong {{recon|â *î *û}} if N is not part of a root
====PNSem to P{{PAGENAME}}====
{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-North Semitic
! Proto-{{PAGENAME}}
|-
| i
| ь
|-
| u
| ъ
|-
| a > ə
| o
|-
| ī
| i
|-
| ū
| y
|-
| ay
| ě
|-
| aw
| u
|-
| ā
| a
|-
| an
| ǫ
|-
| in
| ę, ь
|-
| un
| ǫ, ъ
|}
Havlík's law: strong {{recon|ъ}} > {{recon|o}}, strong {{recon|ь}} > {{recon|e}}, weak jers vanish without doing anything
Cja > Cě
===Consonants===
{{PAGENAME}} distinguishes between around 23 of the original 29 consonants of Proto-Semitic. (cf. Arabic 28, Aramaic/Phoenician 22, Akkadian 20, Modern Hebrew <20).
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:650px; text-align:center;"
|-
! PSem
! {{recon|b}}
! {{recon|d}}
! {{recon|g}}
! {{recon|p}}
! {{recon|t}}
! {{recon|k}}
! {{recon|ṭ}}
! {{recon|ḳ}}
! {{recon|ð}}
! {{recon|z}}
! {{recon|þ}}
! {{recon|š}}
! {{recon|ś}}
! {{recon|s}}
! {{recon|þ&#803;}}
! {{recon|ṣ}}
! {{recon|ṣ́}}
! {{recon|ɣ}}
! {{recon|ʕ}}
! {{recon|ʔ}}
! {{recon|x}}
! {{recon|ħ}}
! {{recon|h}}
! {{recon|m}}
! {{recon|n}}
! {{recon|l}}
! {{recon|r}}
! {{recon|w}}
! {{recon|y}}
|-
! {{PAGENAME}}
| ''b''
| ''d''
| ''ž''
| ''p''
| ''c''
| ''č''
| ''t''
| ''k''
| ''v''
| ''z''
| ''f''
| ''s''
| ''š''
| ''s''
| ''f''
| ''š''
| ''þ''
| ''g''
| ''<sup>a</sup>q'', ''-a''
| ː, ''v'', ''j''
| ''ḫ''
| ''<sup>a</sup>h''
| ''h''
| ''m''
| ''n''
| ''l''
| ''r''
| ''v''
| ''j''
|}
===Declension===
====Early Proto-North Semitic====
Diptotic declension. The parenthesized nasal elements in the dual and plural were unstable due to the shift to word-initial stress that had occurred in PNSem.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''yawmu(n)'' || ''yawmā(n)'' || ''yawmū''
|-
! Accusative/Genitive
| ''yawma(n)'' || ''yawmay(n)'' || ''yawmī''
|}
<!--
If I want triptotes
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''júm'' 'day'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''júm'' || ''júm'''ov''''' || ''júm'''a''''' || ''júm'''ava''''' || ''júm'''y''''' || ''júm'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''j'''ui'''m'' || ''j'''ui'''m'''eve''''' || ''júm'''ä''''' || ''júm'''ävä''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|-
! Accusative
| ''júm'''o''''' || ''júm'''ovo''''' || ''júm'''ä''''' || ''júm'''ävä''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|-
! Oblique
| ''juim'''bi''''' || ''juim'''vebi''''' || ''júm'''äma''''' || ''júm'''äväma''''' || ''júm'''ím''''' || ''júm'''ilím'''''
|}
-->
==Nouns==
{{PAGENAME}} nouns decline in definiteness, three numbers (singular, dual and plural), and three cases (nominative, accusative, genitive). Unusually for a modern Semitic language, case plays a very important and productive role. There is no counterpart to the construct state or possessed forms of other Semitic languages; however, the possessor always follows the head. This state of affairs presumably came about because absolute and construct forms merged very early in the language's history, thus allowing the speakers to analyze them as free case-declined forms instead of bound, "construct-locked" forms.
The accusative is identical to the genitive for animate nouns, and identical to the nominative for inanimate nouns.
{{PAGENAME}} nouns are notable for generalizing the diptotic (two-case) system, with nominative singular ''-''Ø < {{recon|''-ъ''}} < PNSem {{recon|''-u''}} and genitive/accusative singular ''-o'' < PNSem {{recon|''-a''}}, though it is uncertain whether diptotes or triptotes dominated the original Proto-Semitic paradigm. Feminine singular nominative {{recon|''-atu''}} was changed to {{recon|''-ā''}} (modern ''-a''), presumably under Indo-European influence.
The definiteness suffixes arose from cliticized demonstratives: e.g. ''vódov'' 'the child' (nom.) < {{recon|''voldъ-vy''}} < PNSem {{recon|''waldu&nbsp;ðū''}}; ''porosili'' 'the horses' (acc./gen.) < {{recon|''porosi-ъli''}} < PNSem {{recon|''parašī&nbsp;ʔulī''}}.
Nouns fall into one of several declension paradigms. Diachronically, the declension paradigm a noun belongs to is a function of the declension class it was analyzed as, as well as the noun's gender.
The possessor follows the possessor: ''mescajov jumovo'' 'the drink of the day'.
===Masculine nouns of type ''júm''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''vód'' 'child, boy'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''vód'' || ''vód'''ov''''' || ''vód'''a''''' || ''vód'''ava''''' || ''vód'''y''''' || ''vód'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vód'''o''''' || ''vód'''ovo''''' || ''vód'''ě''''' || ''vód'''ěvě''''' || ''vód'''i''''' || ''vód'''ili'''''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''júm'' 'day'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''júm'' || ''júm'''ov''''' || ''júm'''a''''' || ''júm'''ava''''' || ''júm'''y''''' || ''júm'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''júm'''o''''' || ''júm'''ovo''''' || ''júm'''ě''''' || ''júm'''ěvě''''' || ''júm'''i''''' || ''júm'''ili'''''
|}
===Masculine *-ь-stems===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''fob'' 'antelope'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''fob'' || ''fob'''jev''''' || ''fob'''ja''''' || ''fob'''java''' || ''fob'''je''''' || ''fob'''jely'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''fob'''je''''' || ''fob'''jevo''' || ''fob'''jě''''' || ''fob'''jěvě''' || ''fob'''ji''''' || ''fob'''jili'''
|}
===''q''-stems===
{{recon|-q}} > ''a'', {{recon|-aq, *-yq}} > ''á'', {{recon|-eq, ěq}} > ''ě'', {{recon|-uq}} > ''ó'', {{recon|-iq}} > ''é''
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''vrá'' 'arm'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''vrá'' || ''vraqov'' || ''vraqa'' || ''vraqava'' || ''vraqy'' || ''vraqyly''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vraqo'' || ''vraqovo''''' || ''vraqě'' || ''vraqěvě'' || ''vraqi'' || ''vraqili''
|}
===''*ħ''-stems===
Similar alternations to ''q''-stems.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''ráh'' 'wind'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''ráh'' || ''ryhov'' || ''ryha'' || ''ryhava'' || ''ryhy'' || ''ryhyly''
|-
! Genitive
| ''ryho'' || ''ryhovo''''' || ''ryhě'' || ''ryhěvě'' || ''ryhi'' || ''ryhili''
|}
===Masculine ''-ot-'' nouns===
Loanwords: Greek loans in ''-ma'', several suffixes such as ''-ista'', Slavic loanwords.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Masculine noun: ''problema'' 'problem'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''problem'''a''''' || ''problem'''av''''' || ''problem'''ota''''' || ''problem'''ěta''''' || ''problem'''y''''' || ''problem'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''problem'''oto''''' || ''problem'''otovo''''' || ''problem'''ocě''''' || ''problem'''ěcě''''' || ''problem'''i''''' || ''problem'''ili'''''
|}
===Feminine nouns of type ''molča''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | ''sira'' 'performance, ritual'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''sir'''a''''' || ''sir'''ěc''''' || ''sir'''ota''''' || ''sir'''ěta''''' || ''sir'''ác''''' || ''sir'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''sir'''oto''''' || ''sir'''ěto''''' || ''sir'''ocě''''' || ''sir'''ěcě''''' || ''sir'''aci''''' || ''sir'''alaci'''''
|}
===Feminine nouns of type ''lesán''===
This class includes many feminine body part nouns. Examples: ''qӗn'' 'eye'; ''ovon, ovn-'' 'ear'; ''beton, betn-'' 'stomach'; ''koron, korn-'' 'horn'; ''óm'' 'mother'; ''lӗl'' 'night'; ''oroþ, orþ-'' 'earth'.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | ''lesán'' 'tongue, language'
|-
!rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite!!style="width: 100px;" |Indefinite!!style="width: 100px;" |Definite
|-
! Nominative
| ''lesán'' || ''lesán'''ěc''''' || ''lesán'''a''''' || ''lesán'''ěta''''' || ''lesán'''ác''''' || ''lesán'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''lesán'''o''''' || ''lesán'''ěto''''' || ''lesán'''ě''''' || ''lesán'''ěcě''''' || ''lesán'''aci''''' || ''lesán'''alaci'''''
|}
===Feminine abstract ''-íc'' nouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" | Feminine noun: ''omyníc'' 'truth'
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! direct
| ''omyn'''íc''''' || ''omyn'''ita''''' || ''omyn'''ijác'''''
|-
! gen./acc.
| ''omyn'''ito''''' || ''omyn'''icě''''' || ''omyn'''ijaci'''''
|-
! dative
| ''omyn'''ítla''''' || ''omyn'''ítluma'''''  || ''omyn'''ijátlěn'''''
|}
===Irregular nouns===
Nouns with "irregular" declension or broken plurals became nigh-extinct by the time of Proto-Socovíc; however, some still remain.
*''ęs'' (pl. nom. indef. ''onasy'') 'person'
*''sem'' (pl. nom. indef. ''osamy'') 'name'
====Possessed nouns====
Possessed nouns, or nouns that take possessive suffixes, are a closed class; this group covers only the nuclear family nouns ''ob'' 'father' (pl. ''obáje''), ''óm'' 'mother' (pl. ''ómác''), ''oḫ'' (pl. ''oḫovy'') 'brother', ''oḫoc, oḫc-/oḫt-'' 'sister' (pl. ''oḫovác''), ''ben, bn-'' (pl. ''bnáje'') 'son', ''bęc, bęc-/bęt-'' 'daughter' (pl. ''bnác''). Only the singular has possessed forms: ''oḫi'' 'my brother', but ''oḫava li'' 'my two brothers'. The possessive suffixes make the noun definite. Note that the plurals are all irregular in order to disambiguate the plural case-marked forms from the singular possessed forms.
All nouns in this class follow the same declension w.r.t. possession. The oblique can be formed by adding ''-bi'' to the end of the accusative/genitive possessed forms.
'My sister' and 'my daughter' are ''oḫ'''c'''i'' and ''bę'''c'''i'' in the nominative; all other posssessed forms take stems in ''oḫt-'' and ''bęt-''.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" | Possessed forms of ''ob'' 'father'
|-
! colspan="5" | Nominative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''obi'' || ''obyna'' || ''obyny''
|-
! 2.m
| ''obyko''
|rowspan="2"| ''obykma'' || ''obykmy''
|-
! 2.f
| ''obyč''  || ''obykno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''oby''
|rowspan="2"| ''obyma'' || ''obymy''
|-
! 3.f
| ''obá'' || ''obyno''
|-
! colspan="5" | Accusative/Genitive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Case !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''obajo'' || ''obana'' || ''obany''
|-
! 2.m
| ''obako''
|rowspan="2"| ''obakma'' || ''obakmy''
|-
! 2.f
| ''obač''  || ''obakno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''obav''
|rowspan="2"| ''obama'' || ''obamy''
|-
! 3.f
| ''obá'' || ''obano''
|}
==Adjectives==
Adjectives merge the genitive and oblique cases into the genitive case.
Adjectives precede nouns in the nominative and accusative cases: ''rób běc'' 'a big house', ''taba spara'' 'a good story', but follow the nouns in the genitive and oblique: ''docěc běcovo róbovo'' 'the door of the big house', and prepositional objects: ''en běcovo róbovo'' 'in the big house'. Adjectives do not agree in definiteness when they precede the noun, but do agree when they follow the noun.
===Adjectives ending in a consonant===
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'' || ''tab'''ov''''' || ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ava''''' || ''tab'''y''''' || ''tab'''yly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''o'' || ''tab'''ovo'' || ''tab'''ě''''' || ''tab'''ěvě''''' || ''tab'''i''''' || ''tab'''ili'''''
|}
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ěc''''' || ''tab'''ota''''' || ''tab'''ěta''''' || ''tab'''ác''''' || ''tab'''alác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''oto''''' || ''tab'''ěto'' || ''tab'''ocě''''' || ''tab'''ěcě''''' || ''tab'''aci''''' || ''tab'''alaci'''''
|}
===Nisba adjectives===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''bošorí'' 'bodily, physical' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''bošor'''í''''' || ''bošor'''ív''''' || ''bošor'''ija''''' || ''bošor'''íva''''' || ''bošor'''ije''''' || ''bošor'''íly'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''bošor'''ije'' || ''bošor'''ívo'' || ''bošor'''ijě''''' || ''bošor'''ívě''''' || ''bošor'''í''''' || ''bošor'''íli'''''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''bošorí'' 'bodily, physical' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''bošor'''ija''''' || ''bošor'''íc''''' || ''bošor'''ijota''''' || ''bošor'''íta''''' || ''bošor'''ijác''''' || ''bošor'''ílác'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''bošor'''ijoto'' || ''bošor'''íto'' || ''bošor'''ijocě''''' || ''bošor'''ícě''''' || ''bošor'''ijaci''''' || ''bošor'''ílaci'''''
|}
==Pronouns==
Genitive and short accusative pronouns can be used as verbal clitics denoting a pronominal object; the clitic precedes the verb unless the verb is in the imperative. The genitive/dative clitic comes before the accusative clitic. A pronominal object may be "doubled" by a clitic for emphasis like in Balkan or Romance languages.
The original 1st person dual-plural pronoun, {{recon|''naħnā''}}/{{recon|''naħnū''}} was reinterpreted as two different pronouns, each with its respective number ending: hence 1st person dual ''nahna'' < {{recon|''naħnā''}} and 1st person plural ''nahny'' < {{recon|''naħnū''}}.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="10" | Personal pronouns
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Case !! colspan="3" | First person
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
|''nák''|| ''nahna'' || ''nahny''
|-
! Genitive
|''li''|| ''lona'' || ''lony''
|-
! Accusative
|''níc'', ''ni''|| ''nác'', ''na'' || ''nýc'', ''ny''
|-
! Oblique
|''bi''|| ''bna'' || ''bny''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="11" | Personal pronouns, cont.
|-
! rowspan="3" style="width: 100px;" | Case !! colspan="5" | Second person !! colspan="5" | Third person
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural !! colspan="2" | Singular !! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
|''ǫto''|| ''ǫc'' || ''ǫtma'' || ''ǫtmy''* || ''ǫcna'' || ''hy'' || ''hi'' || ''homa'' || ''homy'' || ''hen''
|-
! Genitive
|''loko''|| ''loč'' || ''lókma'' || ''lókmy'' || ''lóčna'' ||''lú''||''lá''||''luma''||''lumy''||''lěn''
|-
! Accusative
|''kác'', ''ka'', ''k'' ||''číc'', ''či'', ''č''|| ''kmác'', ''kma'' || ''kmýc'', ''kmy'' ||''čnác'', ''čna''||''hóc'', ''ho'' ||''hác'', ''ha''||''homác'', ''homa''||''homýc'', ''hom'' ||''henác'', ''hen''
|-
! Oblique
|''beko''||''beč''||''bekma''||''bekmy''||''bečna''||''bí''||''bě''||''bíma''||''bímy''||''bín''
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> 2nd person masculine plural is also used as a polite pronoun.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="width: 270px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | Interrogative pronouns
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case !! style="width: 90px;" | 'who' !! style="width: 90px;" | 'what'
|-
! Nominative
| ''mǫ'' || ''ma''
|-
! Genitive
| ''mǫlu'' || ''malu''
|-
! Accusative
| ''mǫc'' || ''ma''
|-
! Oblique
| ''mǫbi'' || ''mabi''
|}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Demonstrative pronoun
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''vy'' || ''věc'' || ''va'' || ''věta'' || ''ely'' || ''elác''
|-
! Genitive
| ''vu'' || ''věto'' || ''vě'' || ''věcě'' || ''eli'' || ''elaci''
|-
! Dative
| ''vylu'' || ''větla'' || ''věluma''''' || ''větluma''''' || ''elilúm'' || ''elátlěn''
|-
! Oblique
| ''vybi'' || ''větbě'' || ''věbima'' || ''větbima'' || ''elibím'' || ''elátbín''
|}
Relative pronoun ''ovy'' < {{recon|''han-ðū''}}
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Relative pronoun
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>masculine</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>feminine</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''ovy'' || ''ověc'' || ''ova'' || ''ověta'' || ''óly'' || ''ólác''
|-
! Genitive
| ''ovu'' || ''ověto'' || ''ově'' || ''ověcě'' || ''óli'' || ''ólaci''
|-
! Dative
| ''ovylu'' || ''ovětla'' || ''ověluma''''' || ''ovětluma''''' || ''ólilúm'' || ''ólátlěn''
|-
! Oblique
| ''ovybi'' || ''ovětbě'' || ''ověbima'' || ''ovětbima'' || ''ólibím'' || ''ólátbín''
|}
==Numerals==
===Cardinal numerals===
Different cardinal numerals are declined differently, and have various effects on the modified noun depending on the final digits of the numeral:
*Cardinal numerals one and two, and those ending in "1" or "2", are declined as adjectives. The modified noun is singular (and agrees in case) for numbers ending in ''ahod'', and the noun is dual for numbers ending in ''fla''.
**''Nul'' is also an adjective that takes nominative singular.
*All other numerals are declined as nouns and require the noun they modify to be in the genitive plural.
**Words ''šolaf'' (3) through ''cés'' (9) or in ''qošor'' (10-19) are declined like feminine singular nouns in adnominal position (''Hén šolafa onasi'' 'There are three people') and like masculine singular nouns in nominal position (''Hén šolaf'' 'There are three'). This derives from the original Semitic chiastic agreement.
**Words ''qošory'' (20), ''šolafy'' (30), ..., ''césy'' (90) are declined as masculine plural nouns.
**Units such as ''meja'' (100, ''f''), ''olop'' (1000, ''m''), ''milijon'', ''milijarda'', etc. are declined as ordinary nouns, taking the appropriate number and case.
Examples:
*''qošory júmi'' '20 days', ''qošory sonáci'' '20 years'
*''qošory v ahod júm'' '21 days', ''qošory v ahda sona'' '21 years'
*''qošory vo fla júma'' '22 days', ''qošory vo flota sonota'' '22 years'
*''qošory v šolafa júmi'' '23 days', ''qošory v šolafa sonaci'' '23 years'
*''milijona dolari'' '2 million dollars'
*''mejota milijoni dolari'' '200 million dollars'
One may also encounter calques from Arabic:
*''Olop lělaci v lěl'' 'One thousand and one nights' (Arabic ''ˀalf<sup>u</sup> layla<sup>tin</sup> wa-layla<sup>tun</sup>'').
Since {{PAGENAME}} has singular and dual forms, modifying numerals one and two are not needed; thus ''Li hén voda v bęc'' 'I have two sons and a daughter' is just as correct as (in fact preferred to) ''Li hén fla voda v ahda bęc''.
The ordinal numerals ''okdom'' 'first' and ''okrob'' 'second' are suppletive; ''okdom'' is the elative of the root ''k-d-m'' (''kodam'') 'front, before', (cf. the etymology of ''first''), and ''okrob'' is the elative of ''k-r-b'' (''koreb'') 'near' (cf. ''next'').
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="4"|{{PAGENAME}} numerals
|-
!style="width: 60px; "|
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''
!style="width: 120px; "|''n''th
!style="width: 120px; "|1/''n''
|-
|0
|''nul''
|''novyl'' (< the implied root {{recon|''n-w-l''}})
|''-''
|-
|1
|''ahod (m), ahda (f)''
|''okdom''
|''-''
|-
|2
|''fla (m), flota (f)''
|''okrob''
|''žǫb''
|-
|3
|''šolaf, šolafa''
|''šolyf''
|''mošólef''
|-
|4
|''roba, roboqa''
|''robá''
|''moróbě''
|-
|5
|''ḫǫs, ḫǫsa''
|''ḫonys''
|''moḫónes''
|-
|6
|''séf, séfa''
|''sodyf''
|''mosódef''
|-
|7
|''sóp, sópa''
|''sobá''
|''mosóbě''
|-
|8
|''fomán, fomána''
|''fomyn''
|''mofómen''
|-
|9
|''cés, césa''
|''cosá''
|''mocósě''
|-
|10
|''qošor, qošora''
|''qosyr''
|''moqósyr''
|-
|11
|''ahod v qošor''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|20
|''qošory''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|21
|''qošory v ahod''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|30
|''šolafy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|40
|''roboqy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|50
|''ḫǫsy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|60
|''séfy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|70
|''sópy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|80
|''fomány''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|90
|''césy''
|''-''
|''-''
|-
|100
|''meja''
|''mejocí''
|''-''
|-
|200
|''mejota''
|''mejotají''
|''-''
|-
|300
|''šolafa mejác''
|''šolafamejocí''
|''-''
|-
|1000
|''olop''
|''olpí''
|''-''
|-
|2000
|''olpa''
|''olpají''
|''-''
|-
|3000
|''šolafa olpy''
|''šolafaolpí''
|''-''
|}
==Verbs==
:''See also: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Verbal subparadigms|Verbal subparadigms]].''
===Voices===
Passive voice is almost concatenative, just nasal vowel prefix.
===Overview of the verb forms===
====Present====
The present tense is derived from the construction {{recon|''bi-''}} + verbal noun + possessive suffix (agreeing with the subject) which shifted in meaning into something like 'is at one's X-ing'. The possessive suffix component developed into the personal affixes for the present tense. This grammaticalization is reminiscent of the Biblical Hebrew construction for time clauses: ''bă-'' + [[w:infinitive construct|infinitive construct]] + personal suffix, e.g. ''bă-ḇôˀô'' lit. 'at his coming in', i.e. 'when he comes in'.
====Imperfect====
====Preterite====
The preterite indicates an action that was completed in the past. It was inherited from the Proto-Semitic preterite.
:'''''Lu {{blue|nohób}} vohób.'''''
:''I gave him gold.''
Note that the 3fs form of ''jektól'' is ''jektóli'', not ''toktól'' as it would be in other Semitic languages! This is often a shibboleth for Hebrew and Arabic speakers.
====Subjunctive====
The subjunctive form is similar to the preterite form, but has a short vowel in the stem (like the imperative) instead of a long vowel. The short vowel often elides when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.
The non-2nd person imperatives may be formed with the hortative particle ''c'' (< ''ci'' 'come') plus the subjunctive.
:'''''{{blue|C}} jóci memlóč loko.'''''
:''Thy kingdom come.''
The subjunctive (like the imperative) is negated with the negative particle ''la'', instead of ''bo''.
:'''''La li tošnej!'''''
:''Don't get mad at me!''
:'''''La ho tačol!'''''
:''Don't eat it!''
====Imperative====
The imperative is formed by removing the personal prefix from the subjunctive. Often the subjunctive is used with imperative meaning instead. Any clitic pronouns must ''follow'' the imperative, not precede it like with other verb forms.
====Verbal noun====
====Past participle====
====Perfect====
The perfect construction is similar to Slavic: the past active participle is used with the pronoun (a so called ''esse''-perfect).
====Pluperfect====
====Future perfect====
===G-stems: ''jektól''===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''jektól'' 'kill'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotlec''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''katel''
|-
! colspan="4" | Stative passive participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotyl''
|-
! colspan="4" | Past participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''kotol''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''ktol!''
|rowspan="2"| ''ktola!'' || ''ktoly!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''ktoli!'' || ''ktolno!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''bektli'' || ''bektolna'' || ''bektolny''
|-
! 2.m
| ''bektlok''
|rowspan="2"| ''bektolkma'' || ''bektolkmy''
|-
! 2.f
| ''bektloč'' || ''bektolkno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''bektlu''
|rowspan="2"| ''bektolma'' || ''bektolmy''
|-
! 3.f
| ''bektla'' || ''bektolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''noktol'' || ''noktla'' || ''noktly''
|-
! 2.m
| ''toktol''
|rowspan="2"| ''toktla'' || ''toktly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''toktli'' || ''toktolno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jektol''
|rowspan="2"| ''jektla'' || ''jektly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jektli'' || ''jektolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperfect
|-
| colspan="4"| ''Add ''fo-'' to present tense forms.''
|-
! colspan="4" | Preterite
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''noktól'' || ''noktóla'' || ''noktóly''
|-
! 2.m
| ''toktól''
|rowspan="2"| ''toktóla'' || ''toktóly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''toktóli'' || ''toktólno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jektól''
|rowspan="2"| ''jektóla'' || ''jektóly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jektóli'' || ''jektólno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future I
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''de noktol'' || ''de noktla'' || ''de noktly''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de toktol''
|rowspan="2"| ''de toktla'' || ''de toktly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de toktli'' || ''de toktolno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de jektol''
|rowspan="2"| ''de jektla'' || ''de jektly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de jektli'' || ''de jektolno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future II
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''de nočon kotol''|| ''de nočona kotla'' || ''de nočony kotly''
|-
! 1.f
| ''de nočon kotla'' || ''de nočona kotlota'' || ''de nočony kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de točon kotol'' || ''de točona kotla'' || ''de točony kotly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de točoni kotla''|| ''de točona kotlota'' || ''de točonno kotlác''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de ječon kotol'' || ''de ječona kotla'' || ''de ječony kotly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de ječoni kotla''|| ''de ječona kotlota'' ||  ''de ječonno kotlác''
|-
! colspan="4" | Perfect
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''nák kotol'' || ''nána kotla'' || ''nány kotly''
|-
! 1.f
| ''nák kotla'' || ''nána kotlota'' || ''nány kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''ǫto kotol'' || ''ǫtma kotla'' || ''ǫtmy kotly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''ǫc kotla'' || ''ǫtma kotlota'' || ''ǫtno kotlác''
|-
! 3.m
| ''(hy) kotol'' || ''(homa) kotla'' || ''(homy) kotly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''(hi) kotla'' || ''(homa) kotlota'' || ''(hen) kotlác''
|-
! colspan="4" | Pluperfect
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1.m
| ''nočyn kotol'' || ''nočyna kotla'' || ''nočyny kotly''
|-
! 1.f
| ''nočyn kotla'' || ''nočyna kotlota'' || ''nočyny kotlác''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točyn kotol'' || ''točyna kotla'' || ''točyny kotly''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točyni kotla'' || ''točyna kotlota'' || ''točynno kotlác''
|-
! 3.m
| ''ječyn kotol'' || ''ječyna kotla'' || ''ječyny kotly''
|-
! 3.f
| ''ječyni kotla'' || ''ječyna kotlota'' || ''ječynno kotlác''
|}
===N-stems: ''jękotyl''===
===D-stems: ''jokótél''===
Examples: ''jobóréč'' 'greet, celebrate', ''joþójém'' 'bring up in conversation, build upon a concept' (< ''þima'' 'topic, theme')
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''jopóléž'' 'split (something)'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''pólžíc''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''mopólež''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''pólež!''
|rowspan="2"| ''pólža!'' || ''pólžy!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''pólži!'' || ''póležno!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nopólež'' || ''nopólža'' || ''nopólžy''
|-
! 2.m
| ''topólež''
|rowspan="2"| ''topólža'' || ''topólžy''
|-
! 2.f
| ''topólži'' || ''topóležno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jepólež''
|rowspan="2"| ''jepólža'' || ''jepólžy''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jepólži'' || ''jepóležno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Preterite
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nopóléž'' || ''nopóléža'' || ''nopóléžy''
|-
! 2.m
| ''topóléž''
|rowspan="2"| ''topóléža'' || ''topóléžy''
|-
! 2.f
| ''topóléži'' || ''topóléžno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jepóléž'' || ''jepóléža'' || ''jepóléžy''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jepóléži'' || ''jepóléža'' || ''jepóléžno''
|}
===ND-stems: ''ękótol''===
===Š-stems: ''soktel, ęsoktel''===
===Gt-stems: ''ektotel''===
The {{angbr|''t''}}-infix adds a reciprocal or mediopassive meaning to the verb.
====Metathesis of {{angbr|''t''}}====
Kinda like Hebrew but weirder.
The {{angbr|''t''}} metathesizes out of the stem and dissimilates when the first radical is:
*''t'': {{recon|''tt''}} > ''st''
*''c'': {{recon|''ct''}} > ''sc''
*''d'': {{recon|''dt''}} > ''zd''
*''þ'': {{recon|''þt''}} > ''sþ''
Metathesis also takes place when the first radical is ''m'' and ''n'' to better distinguish ''m'' from ''n'':
*''m'': {{recon|''mt''}} > ''tm''
*''n'': {{recon|''nt''}} > ''tn''
===Št-stems: ''stoktol, ęstoktal''===
===''čan'' 'be, exist'===
The verb ''čan'' has no present tense indicative forms; the formal "present tense" forms are used for the future and subjunctive. It also has no imperfective-perfective distinction in the past or future. In the present indicative, pronouns are used as the copula, and the word ''jef'' is used to indicate existence.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 400px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="4" | ''čanec, čon, jočyn, čan, čun'' 'be'
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive/Verbal noun
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čanec''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čun''
|-
! colspan="4" | Past Participle
|-
| colspan="4" | ''čan''
|-
! colspan="4" | Imperative
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 2.m
| ''čon!''
|rowspan="2"| ''čona!'' || ''čony!''
|-
! 2.f
| ''čoni!'' || ''čonno!''
|-
! colspan="4" | Present
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| (''nák'') || (''nána'') || (''nány'')
|-
! 2.m
| (''ǫto'')
|rowspan="2"| (''ǫtma'') || (''ǫtmy'')
|-
! 2.f
| (''ǫc'') || (''ǫtno'')
|-
! 3.m
| (''ho'')
|rowspan="2"| (''homa'') || (''homy'')
|-
! 3.f
| (''hi'') || (''hen'')
|-
! colspan="4" | Past
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nočyn'' || ''nočyna'' || ''nočyny''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točyn''
|rowspan="2"| ''točyna'' || ''točyny''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točyni'' || ''jočynno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jočyn''
|rowspan="2"| ''jočyna'' || ''jočyny''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jočyni'' || ''jočynno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Future
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''de nočon'' || ''de nočna'' || ''de nočny''
|-
! 2.m
| ''de točon''
|rowspan="2"| ''de točna'' || ''de točny''
|-
! 2.f
| ''de točni'' || ''de točonno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''de jočon''
|rowspan="2"| ''de jočna'' || ''de jočny''
|-
! 3.f
| ''de jočni'' || ''de jočonno''
|-
! colspan="4" | Subjunctive
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Dual !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''nočon'' || ''nočna'' || ''nočny''
|-
! 2.m
| ''točon''
|rowspan="2"| ''točna'' || ''točny''
|-
! 2.f
| ''točni'' || ''točonno''
|-
! 3.m
| ''jočon''
|rowspan="2"| ''jočna'' || ''jočny''
|-
! 3.f
| ''jočni'' || ''jočonno''
|}
==Interrogatives==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Interrogatives
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''ma''|| what || {{recon|''mā''}}
|-
||''mǫ''|| who || {{recon|''man''}}
|-
||''mur''|| when || {{recon|''mā''}} + Ancient Greek ''hōra'' 'time'
|-
||''vilma''|| why || ''vil'' 'for' + ''ma'' 'what'
|}
==Prepositions==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Prepositions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''en''|| in, towards, into (+gen) || {{recon|''ʔin(a)''}}
|-
||''me''|| from (+gen); with (+obl) || {{recon|''min''}}; Greek ''me''
|-
||''qę''|| between, among (+obl)|| {{recon|''ʕimm-''}}
|-
||''qolě''|| on (+gen) || {{recon|''ʕalay''}}
|-
||''vil'' || for (+acc) ||
|-
||''smǫ'' || named, by the name of || {{recon|''šman''}}
|}
==Conjunctions==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Conjunctions
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''v(o)''|| and || {{recon|''wa-''}}
|-
||''éla''|| or || {{recon|''ʔim lā''}}
|-
||''u''|| xor || {{recon|''ʔaw''}}
|-
||''vén''|| so, thus || {{recon|''wa-hinna''}}
|-
||''ča'' || as ||
|-
||''no''|| subjunctive || {{recon|''ʔan(na)''}}, {{recon|''-anna''}}
|-
||''jěj''|| if || {{recon|''yahwī''}}
|-
||''lu''|| if (contrary-to-fact) || {{recon|''law''}}
|-
||''po''|| then, so || {{recon|''pa-''}}
|-
||''onur''|| when || {{recon|''han-hōra''}} or {{recon|''ʔana hōra''}}
|}
==Particles==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3"|Particles
|-
!|{{PAGENAME}}
!|Gloss
!|Etymology
|-
||''o''|| polar question || {{recon|''ha-''}}
|-
||''bo''|| not (indicative) || {{recon|''bal''}}
|-
||''la''|| not (irrealis), no (interjection) || {{recon|''lā''}}
|}
==Usage==
===Nominal sentences===
As in most Semitic and certain Slavic languages, present indicative does not require a copula:
:'''''Eláh ibošorí.''''' (also: ''Eláh hy ibošorí.'' Obviously, a Muslim might say ''Alláh (hy) ibošorí.'')
:''God is incorporeal.''
===Possession===
Possession is emphasized with the adjective ''nopsí'' (the pronoun is optional):
:'''''me joděcě {{blue|nopsícě}}'''''
:''with one's own hands''
Emphasized possession of possessed nouns: e.g. ''bn'''i''' nopsív'' 'my own son', c.f. ''běc'''ov''' nopsív'' 'my own house'.
===Existentials===
In positive clauses, ''hén'' is used as the word for "there is"; in interrogative and negative clauses ''jef'' is used.
Existential words are used in predicative possession.
===Relative clauses===
As is the case in most European languages, but unlike in other Semitic languages, relative pronouns agree with the gender and number of the head, but are case-marked for their syntactic position within the relative clause.
The choice of the relative pronoun depends on the definiteness/specificity of the noun. Specific referents use ''vy'' as the relative pronoun, whereas indefinite or hypothetical nouns use ''mǫ'' (animate)/''ma'' (inanimate).
==Derivational morphology==
===Patterns===
*''CoCCán'' 'person characterized by X", also ''-án''
**''rahmán'' 'merciful one' < {{recon|''r-ħ-m''}}
*''meCCoC'' place noun
**''mevbáh'' 'altar' < {{recon|''ð-b-ħ''}} 'sacrifice' (''altar, altarj-'' is more common though)
**''mesvój'' 'plain' < {{recon|''š-w-y''}} 'even, equal'
===Affixes===
*''aft(o)-'' 'self-, auto-'
**''aftokotlec'' 'suicide'
**''aftorahom'' 'self-pity' < ''rahom, rahm-'' 'compassion, mercy'
**''aftoqosor'' 'self-worth; eigenvalue' < ''qosor, qosr-'' 'value, worth'.
*''-cija'' '-tion'
**''funkcija'' '(mathematical) function'
*''i-'' 'un-', 'non-' (negative prefix for nouns and adjectives)
**''ibercí'' 'nonmetallic'
*''-í'' adjective (nisba) suffix
**''májí'' 'aquatic, aqueous' < ''máj'' 'water'
**''qomí'' 'national' < ''qom'' 'people, nation'
**''-ikí'' '-ic'
***''logikí'' 'logical' < ''logika'' 'logic' vs. ''logí'' 'of or pertaining to throat' < ''log'' 'throat'
*''-íc'' abstract noun suffix from nouns and adjectives
**''nopsíc'' 'identity' < ''nopos, nops-'' 'self'
**''omyníc'' 'truth' < ''omyn'' 'true'
**''onasíc'' 'humanity (human species)' < ''onasy'' 'people (pl.)' (compare ''ęsíc'' 'humanity (being human)' < ''ęs'' 'person (sg.)'; cf. German ''Menschheit'' vs. ''Menschlichkeit'')
**''polaríc'' 'polarity' < ''polarí'' 'polar'
*''-izom, -izm-'' '-ism'
**''šiqizom'' 'Shiˁism'
*''-loja'' '-logy'
==Dialects==
Standard Socovíc (''socovíc standardíc'') has the dual number and the feminine plural verb suffix ''-no''. Other dialects tend to omit one or both of these features.
===Greek-influenced===
*''c'' (in affixes) > ''s'': ''socovis'' : ''socovíc''
*f.pl. ending (all cases) is ''-as'', def. ''-alas''
*''e'', ''y'' and ''ě'' are all /e/
*Netagin-esque mutation?
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (masculine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'' || ''tab'''ov''''' || ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''ava''''' || ''tab'''e''''' || ''tab'''ele'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''o'' || ''tab'''ovo'' || ''tab'''e''''' || ''tab'''eve''''' || ''tab'''i''''' || ''tab'''ili'''''
|}
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="7" | Adjective declension: ''tab'' 'good' (feminine)
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 100px;" |
! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Dual !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>indefinite</small> !! style="width: 100px;" | <small>definite</small>
|-
! Nominative
| ''tab'''a''''' || ''tab'''es''''' || ''tab'''ota''''' || ''tab'''eta''''' || ''tab'''as''''' || ''tab'''alas'''''
|-
! Genitive
| ''tab'''oto''''' || ''tab'''eto''''' || ''tab'''ose''''' || ''tab'''ese''''' || ''tab'''as''''' || ''tab'''alas'''''
|}
==Phrasebook==
*''Solám!'' 'Hello!'
*''Tab mahár!'' 'Good morning!'
*''Tab júm!'' 'Good day!'
*''Taba mesa!'' 'Good evening!'
*''Taba lěl!'' 'Good night!'
*''Ma smov lók/lóč?'' 'What is your (m.sg/f.sg) name?'
*''Smov li [name].'' 'My name is [name].'
*''Staqpu/Staqpovi/Staqpova/Staqpovy/Staqpuna li!'' (to one man/one woman/two people/m.pl./f.pl) 'Excuse me!'
*''Oj vil ma!'' 'No worries!'
*''Čok.'' 'Yes.'
*''La.'' 'No.'
==Texts==
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1===
:'''''Čóly onasyly jǫvolydy horary v savije en qosrovo v tahikili.'''''
:<small>all-PL.M.NOM human.PL.DEF.NOM 3.PRES-beget/PASS-PL.M free-PL.M.NOM and equal-PL.M.NOM in worth-SG.DEF.INS and right-PL.DEF.INS</small>
:''All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights.''
:'''''Mǫsyčaly me mosbáro v tostočíno, homy mǫpokady no joptaqly okrobokroblu en ḫnumoto oḫovíto.'''''
:<small>PART-empower/PASS-PL.M.NOM with reason-SG.GEN and conscience-SG.GEN 3.PL.M.NOM PART-obligate/PASS-PL.M.NOM SUBJ 3-behave/PRES-PL.M each_other-SG.M.DAT in spirit-SG.GEN brotherhood-SG.GEN</small>
:''Empowered with reason and conscience, they ought to behave toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
([[Media:Udhr_{{PAGENAME}}.ogg|audio]])
===Pater noster===
<poem>
''Obyny, ovy ǫto en somájili!''
''C jektódas smov lók.''
''C jéci memlóčov lók.''
''C jępoqyly roþív lók, ěma en somájili ěvi v en orþěto.''
''Ḫlebov lony jumív cen lony ojúm.''
''V staqpu lony ḫotálác lony, ěvi v nahny nostaqpovy ḫotálác nož lony.''
''V la ny sabé en tonésíny, éla žal ny leč rogovo.''
''Amen.''
</poem>
===Schleicher's fable===
'''''Sověc v porosyly'''''
:''Sova větla bo foječon qobáj jerí porosi; ahod foježórer čobid merčab, ahod fojeshab rób homol, v ahod fojeshab odomo išǫ. Sověc jamári porosili: «Lébov li bemoraru, rájoto odom mosožér porosi.» Porosyly jamáry: «Stosmeqi, sova, lébov lony bemoraru, rájili vy: odom, baqlov, beqši noposlu qobájvobi sověto ham molbes. Vén sovětla bo jef qobáj.» Someqa vy, sověc jebráhi en mesvójovo.''
([[Media:Schleicher_{{PAGENAME}}.ogg|audio]])
'''The Sheep and the Horses'''
:A sheep that had no wool saw horses; one was pulling a heavy wagon, one was carrying a big load, and one was carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, having seen a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us, having seen this: a man, the master, makes out of the wool of the sheep a warm garment for himself. So the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
===A math joke (which probably already exists in quite a few languages)===
:'''''Vilma matricěc jektórádi?'''''
:''Why did the matrix crumple up?''
:'''''Povy lá foječon nul aftoqosor.'''''
:''Because it had a zero eigenvalue/zero self-worth.''
[[Category:Semitic languages]]

Latest revision as of 14:03, 2 May 2023

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