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'''Saxuma''' /saʃuˈma/ (<small>Saxuma:</small> [sɑ.ɕùˈmá]), also romanized '''Sasiouma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 5000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasaois, and an autonomous zone of the Hellenic Republic. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, flexible word order, and dynamic semantic gender.
{{Infobox language
| name = Saxuma
| altname = Sasciuma
| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
| family = Isolate
| protoname = Saras Wima
| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
| created = 2024
| speakers = ~9000
| date = NA
}}


Almost all residents of Sasaios speak Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.
'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (<small>Saxuma:</small> [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.  


The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasaios - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasaios and considered official history by the town government.  
Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.


On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti]], with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.
The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists. 
 
On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 11: Line 24:
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant Inventory
|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
|-  
|-  
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !!  colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !!  colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !!  colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !!  colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
|-
!                                                 Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
|-
|-
! Nasals  
! Nasals  
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2|(ɲ) ||  colspan=2| (ŋ) ||
| colspan=2| m || colspan=2| n || colspan=2| ɲ ||  colspan=2| ||
|-
|-
! Plosives  
! Plosives  
Line 24: Line 37:
|-
|-
! Fricatives  
! Fricatives  
| (ɸ) || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || || hʷ
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
|-
! Liquids
! Liquids
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || (ʎ) ||colspan=3|
| colspan=2| || r̥ || l || || ʎ ||colspan=3|
|-  
|-  
! Glides
! Glides
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
|}
|}
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.  
* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.  
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.  
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.  
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.  
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.  
* /ɸ/ appears only in loanwords, and may be instead pronounced as [hʷ]
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.  
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.  
* /hʷ/ may be realized as [ʍ] and /v/ as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.  
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.  
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].
An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
|-
! colspan=2| !!  Labial !!  colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
|-
! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
|-
! colspan=2| Nasals
| m || n ||  ɲ || (ŋ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
| p || t || ʨ || k  || (ʨ) || ʔ
|-
! voiced
| b || d || ʥ || g || (ʥ)
|-
! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s  || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
|-
! voiced
| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
|-
! colspan=2| Trill
| || r̥
|-
! colspan=2| Approximants
| w || l || ʎ || ||  j ||
|}


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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|-
|-
! High  
! High  
| i iː || u uː
| i iː (y) || u uː
|-
|-
! Mid  
! Mid  
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| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ  
| colspan=2| aː a~ɑ  
|-
|-
! Diphthongs  
|}
| colspan=2 | aj~ai, oj~oi, ew~eo, ɑw~ɑo, ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! rowspan=2| Diphthongs || Front-initial || Back-initial
|-
| ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o || aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
|-
|-
|}
|}
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
* Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ]. 
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.  
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.  
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
* Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===


The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)(j)V(C). Only voiceless obstruents and nasals are allowed in codas, with the exception of /hw/, which does not.  
The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/.  Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.
 
/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.  


Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.  
Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.  


The sequence /nn/ is allowed. One survey of speakers indicated that /mm/, /ss/, /zz/, /ɕɕ/, and /ʑʑ/ are all considered phonotactically licit, but no actual occurrences of any of these are attested, except across word boundaries. Identical plosives in sequence will have the former plosive morph to a glottal stop, e.g. */tt/ > [ʔt].
The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.  
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 |  || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
!  p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
! t
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! k
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
! b
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
! m
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-
! n
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! ɕ
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|}


===Pitch Accent===  
===Pitch Accent===  


Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kobá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kóba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, while 'to drink' is still ''kobá'', is now ''kō''.
Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, ''kubá'' [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. ''kúba'' [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as ''kalán'' 'to cry' vs. ''kálan'' 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now ''kobá'' and beverage is now ''kō''.


Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.  
Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.  


* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''bō'' [ˈboː] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''gay'' [gay] ("why") are stressless, and bear a low tone.  
* Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, ''kan'' [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as ''baw'' [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as ''u'' ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.  
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. ''émin'' [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, ''xeyáyem'' [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and ''zigará'' [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''mābá'' [mâːˈbá] ("various").  
* If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. ''enâ'' [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. ''bābá'' [bâːˈbá] ("various").  
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''mābá'' as [ma.àˈbá].
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].
 
===Ablauts===
 
There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.
 
The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* e → yo
* u → ū
* o → ō
 
The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
* a → ay
* i → ī
* e → ē
* u, o → oy


==Orthography==
==Orthography==


===Romanization===
===Romanization===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
|-
! A a || I i || E e || U u || O o || Ay ay || Aw aw || Ew ew || Oy oy || Ya ya || Yu yu
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
| /a/ || /i/ || /ɛ/ || /u/ || /o/ || /aj/ || /ɑw/ || /ew/ || /oy/ || /ja/ || /ju/
|-
! M m || P p || B b || F f || Ff ff || V v || N n || T t || D d || S s || Z z
|-
|-
| /m/ || /p/ || /b/ || /hʷ/ || /ɸ/ || /v/ || /n/ || /t/ || /d/ || /s/ || /z/
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|-
!  K k || G g || Q q || H h || C c || X x || J j || Y y || W w || R r || L l
|-
| /k/ || /g/ || /ʔ/ || /x/  || /c/ || /ɕ/ || /ʑ/ || /j/ || /w/ || /r̥/ || /l/
|}
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat.
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].


===Script===
===Script===


==Verbal Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nominal Morphology===


===W Ablaut===
====Case====
 
The W Ablaut is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma verb inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:
* a → aw, unless unstressed, in which case → o
* i → yu
* u → ū
* e → yō
* o → ō


===Verb Classes===
Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.


There are nine verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.  
* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
:: "biga ome"
:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
:: ''my foot''
: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
:: "bigaw huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's foot''
: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
:: "bigaw savu huk"
:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
:: ''the chicken's left foot''
: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
* The '''dative-superessive''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ''ba'' ("upon").


* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
====Number====
* The '''-sa conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <nowiki><s> or <x>.</nowiki>
* The '''-fa conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <f>.
* The '''-ra conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <r>.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n, -m, or -y.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, and -p, and some ending in long -ē.
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
* The '''-L conjugation''' includes a small number of verbs ending in long ō and ū.
* The '''-aw irregular conjugation''' includes a small number of verbs ending in aw, and an even smaller number ending in ō.


We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.
Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.  


===The Negative, -NA===
The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.


'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
====Pronouns====
: Sigu palah.
: ''The rabbit runs.''


: Sig'''na''' palah.  
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''
|+ Saxuma pronouns
|-
! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
|-
! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
|-
! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
|-
! Direct
| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
|-
! Absolutive
| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēka || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
|-
! Genitive
| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
|-
! Construct
| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}}  || {{sx-s|ginu}}
|-
! Dative-Superessive
| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
|}
* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.


-NA may be appended to any of the other endings besides the attributive.
====Gender====
: Sigway palah.
: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''
: <small>run.{{sc|INCH}} rabbit</small>
: ''The rabbit starts to run. ''  


: Sigway'''na''' palah.
The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.
: <small>run.{{sc|INCH}}'''.{{sc|NEG}}''' rabbit</small>
: ''The rabbit '''does not''' start to run. ''


====How to conjugate -NA====
Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.
The conjugations of -NA for the different classes are as follows:
* Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.  
*: lesó → lesoná
*: enjí → enjiná
*: sigú → signá


* -N, -S, -H, and -L conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
====The reflexive ''-kom''====
*: ekán → ekanná
*: rum → rumná
*: way → wayná
*: gix → gixná
*: sarás → sarasná
*: oxâ → oxāná
*: xō → xōná


* -sa conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is <x>, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
===Verb Morphology===
*: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
*: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]


* -fa conjugation verbs delete the final -fV, apply W-Ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.
====Conjugation====
*: safá → saw-ná → soná


* -ra conjugation verbs delete the final -rV, and append xná.  
There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.  
*: kurú → kuxná


* -T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply W-Ablaut, and finally append ná.  
* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
*: enák → enaw-ná → enoná
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
*: hē → hyō-ná → hyōná
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.  
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.  
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.


* -aw irregular verbs change delete the final -aw or ō and append -oná.  
Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.
*: aw → oná
*: law → loná
*: mō → mōná


See the summary in the table below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
|-
! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong  
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong  
| lesó || lesoná
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
|-
! Weak   
! Weak   
| sigú || signá
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 -| -sa
! colspan=2 | -FA
| exí || exná
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -fa
! colspan=2 | -JA
| safá || soná
| mujú || moyná || moybí||  mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -ra
! colspan=2 | -LA
| kurú || kuxná
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -N  
! colspan=2 | -N  
| ekán || ekanná
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -S  
! colspan=2 | -S  
| gix || gixná
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -T  
! colspan=2 | -T  
| enák || enoná
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -L
! colspan=2 | -W
| ojô || ojōná
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -aw
! colspan=2 | -Y
|law || loná
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}
|}


====The Causative, -BI====
====Evidentiality====
 
In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.
 
* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
*: torá → kantorá
*: exí → kanexí
*: gir → kangír
* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
*: torá → lextorá
*: ryu → laryú
*: lesó → lalesó
*: uzá → laruzá
* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
*: torá → tomtorá
*: ōná → tamōná
*: exí → tamwexí
* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
*: bulíx → nyebulíx
*: ryu → nyeryú
*: exí → enyexí
*: yos → enyós
*: torá → entyorá
*: gir → engyír
*: liré → enlyiré
*: hanú → enhyanú
 
====Imperative and Hortative====
 
The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
: lesó → lêso
: nar → nār
: law → lâwo
: xō → xō
 
==Syntax==
 
Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.
 
The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.
 
There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.


====The Inchoative, -FAY====
Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.


====The Prospective, -KUN====
===The topic marker ''sa''===


====The Perfective, -W====
===Complementary Phrases===


====The Habitual, -AX====
====''Ka'' as a complementizer====


====The Attributive, -LA====
====''U'' as a complementizer====


===Summary===
====The complementizer ''vin''====


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
====The attributive====
|+ Verb conjugations by classs and inflection
 
==Semantics==
 
===Semantics of gender===
: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''
 
There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse. 
 
Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.
 
Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
|-
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
|-
|-
! Weak 
| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigqún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 -| -sa
| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yōsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -fa
| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
| safá || soná || sobí || sofáy || soqún || safô || safáx || sosá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -ra
| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
| kurú || kuxná || kuxbí ||  kuxfáy || kuqún || kûsá || kuxáx || kūsá
|}
|-
 
! colspan=2 | -N
===Time===
| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
 
|-
==Sample Texts==
! colspan=2 | -S
: ''See also: [[Saxuma/Texts]]''
| gix || gixná || gixbí || gixfáy || giqún || gyúsa || gixáx || gyusá
===Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===
|-
 
! colspan=2 | -T
{| class="itwiki_template_toc" style="width:100%;"
| enák || enoná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enolá
|-
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxosá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -L
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
| ojô || ojōná || ojōbí || ojōwáy || ojōkún || ojóla || ojoláx || ojolá
| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -aw
| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
|law || loná || lobí || lowáy || lokún || lála || laláx || lalá
| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
|}
|}


Latest revision as of 13:03, 21 October 2024

Saxuma
Sasciuma
Pronunciation[ˈsá.ɕy.ma]
Created byAnisette Biscotti
Date2024
Native toSasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
Native speakers~9000
Isolate
  • Saxuma
Early form
Saras Wima

Saxuma /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized Sasciuma and historically known as Saras Wima ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by Anisette Biscotti in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless
Nasals m n ɲ
Plosives p b t d c k g ʔ
Fricatives ɸ~ɸʷ v⁓β s⁓t͡s z⁓d͡z ç ɕ ʑ⁓d͡ʑ x⁓h
Liquids r̥ l ʎ
Glides (ʍ) w j
  • /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when adjacent to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when preceding a velar plosive.
  • Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
  • All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
  • /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
  • /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
  • /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
  • The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
  • When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
  • Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
  • Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
Labial Alveolar Velar Glottal
plain plain palatal plain palatal plain
Nasals m n ɲ (ŋ)
Plosives voiceless p t ʨ k (ʨ) ʔ
voiced b d ʥ g (ʥ)
Fricatives voiceless ɸʷ⁓hʷ s ɕ x ç (h)
voiced β z ʑ
Trill r̥
Approximants w l ʎ j

Vowels

Vowel Inventory
Front Back
High i iː (y) u uː
Mid ɛ~e eː o oː
Low aː a~ɑ
Diphthongs Front-initial Back-initial
ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
  • Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
    • Front-initial diphthongs must be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
    • Back-initial diphthongs are usually pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
  • In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
  • Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
  • Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
  • /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
  • Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.

Permissible coda-onset sequences
Following Onset
p t k b d g m n ɸ v s z ɕ ʑ r l w j
Preceding Coda p [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [ʔm] [pn] [pɸ] No No No No No No [pl] [pw] [pj]
t [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [tm] [ʔn] [tɸ] No No No No No No [ʔl] [tw] [c]
k [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [km] [kn] [kɸ] No No No No No No [kl] [kw] [c]
b [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [ʔm] [bn] No No No No No No No [ʔl] [bw] [bj]
d [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [dm] [ʔn] No No No No No No No [ʔl] [dw] [d͡ʑ]
g [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [gm] [gn] No No No No No No No [ʔl] [gw] [d͡ʑ]
m [mp] [mt] [mk] [mb] [mp] [mg] [mm] [mn] [mɸ] [mv] [mt͡s] [md͡z] [mɕ] [md͡ʑ] [mbr] [ml] [mw] [mj]
n [mp] [nt] [ŋk] [mb] [nd] [ŋg] [mm] [mn] [mɸ] [mv] [nt͡s] [nd͡z] [ɲɕ] [ɲd͡ʑ] [nr] [nl] [nw] [ɲ]
s [sp] [st] [sk] [sb] [sd] [sg] [sm] [sn] [sɸ] No No No No No [sr] No [sw] [ɕ]
z No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No [zw] [ʑ]
ɕ [ɕp] [ɕt] [ɕk] [ɕb] [ɕd] [ɕg] [ɕm] [ɕɲ] [ɕɸ] [ɕv] [ɕɕ] [ɕʑ] [ɕɕ] [ɕʑ] No No [ɕw] [ɕ]
ʑ No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No [ʑw] [ʑ]
x No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No [ɸ] [ç]
r No No No No No No [rn] [rm] [rɸ] [rv] No No No No No No [rw] [rj]

Pitch Accent

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, kubá [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. kúba [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as kalán 'to cry' vs. kálan 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now kobá and beverage is now kō.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

  • Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, kan [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as baw [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as u ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
  • If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. émin [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, xeyáyem [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and zigará [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
  • If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. enâ [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. bābá [bâːˈbá] ("various").
    • When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, enâ would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and bābá as [ba.àˈbá].

Ablauts

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The w-ablaut is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:

  • a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
  • i → yu
  • e → yo
  • u → ū
  • o → ō

The y-ablaut primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:

  • a → ay
  • i → ī
  • e → ē
  • u, o → oy

Orthography

Romanization

Saxuma Romanization
Romanization a b c d dy e f g gy h hy i j k ky l ly m n ny o p q r s sy t ty u v w x y z zy
IPA a b c d d͡ʑ ɛ ɸ g d͡ʑ x ç i ʑ k c l ʎ m n ɲ o p ʔ r̥ s ɕ t c u v w ɕ j z ʑ
  • Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
    • In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, leyo ("world") is equivalent to léyo, and mabu ("to learn") is equivalent to mabú
  • Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, niqí is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

Script

Morphology

Nominal Morphology

Case

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct case requires any declension — all others use the base form along with a preposition or particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

  • The direct case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
  • The absolutive case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see Syntax). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ka after the noun phrase.
  • The genitive and construct cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
"biga ome"
foot I.gen
my foot
In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing -sí replace it with -xú, and those ending with -míx or -kóm form it by additionally suffixing -u.
"bigaw huk"
foot.cons chicken
the chicken's foot
Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
"bigaw savu huk"
foot.cons left.cons chicken
the chicken's left foot
However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition u ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
"huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
chicken.cons child.cons farmer → chicken of child.cons farmer
the farmer's child's chicken → the chicken of the farmer's child
  • The dative-superessive case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition eke, meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is marked with the preposition ba ("upon").

Number

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix -sí (or -xú in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix -zí/-jú, and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending -sí/-xú.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing -míx (construct -míxu) to any nominal, including pronouns. -míx is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

Pronouns

Saxuma pronouns
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person Gendered
singular plural singular plural singular plural lunar solar
generic inclusive exclusive singular plural singular plural
Direct me ma mazén mawís zu ter dē ca le lele in igin
Absolutive mek maká zuká terak dēka daqá lek eleká inka ginka
Genitive omé wimá unú usér urê urá olé olelé ohín ohigín
Construct myo maw zū tero desu caw leyu lelyo inu ginu
Dative-Superessive bome bemá bay batér bade bacá bose baselé bagín baynin
  • mazén and mawís do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
  • The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

Gender

See: Semantics of gender

The lunar suffix is -(i)lé, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see Phonotactics). The solar suffix is -(k)ín, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes lo-/lew- and in(w)-, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being zi-.

The reflexive -kom

Verb Morphology

Conjugation

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

  • The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
  • The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
  • The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
  • The -JA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
  • The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
  • The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
  • The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
  • The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
  • The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
  • The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
  • The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see Saxuma/Verb Conjugation. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

Verb conjugations by class and inflection
Class Example Stem Negative -NA Causative -BI Inchoative -WAY Prospective -KUN Perfective -W Habitual -AX Attributive -LA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná lesobí lesowáy lesokún lesô lesowáx lesolá
Weak sigú signá sigbí sigwáy sigkún sigû sigwáx siglá
-SA exí exná exbí exfáy eqún exyú exyáx yosá
-FA safá sawná sawbí sawfáy sawqún safáw safáx sawsá
-JA mujú moyná moybí mujwáy moykún mujû mujwáx moylá
-LA ralí rawná rawbí rawáy rawkún ralyú ralyáx ralá
-N ekán ekanná ekanbí ekanwáy ekankún ekánla ekanáx ekanlá
-S sarás sarasná sarasbí sarasfáy saraqún saráwsa sarasáx sarawsá
-T enák enawná enacú enasfáy enaqún enatáw enatáx enaxá
-H oxâ oxāná oxābí oxafáy oxaqún oxáwsa oxaháx oxawsá
-W law lawná lawbí lawáy lawkún lála laláx lalá
-Y way wayná waybí waywáy waykún wayú wayáx waylá

Evidentiality

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

  • Unmarked evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
  • Inferential information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix kan- on all verbs.
    torá → kantorá
    exí → kanexí
    gir → kangír
  • Hearsay, information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix la- before r- and l-initial verbs, lex- before other consonant-initial verbs, and lar- before vowel-initial verbs.
    torá → lextorá
    ryu → laryú
    lesó → lalesó
    uzá → laruzá
  • Definitive information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix tom- on verbs beginning with consonants, tam- on verbs beginning with round vowels, and tamw- on verbs beginning with other vowels.
    torá → tomtorá
    ōná → tamōná
    exí → tamwexí
  • Intuitive information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix eny- before vowel-initial verbs, nye- before initial labial consonants or /r/, and en- before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix en- is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial vowel.
    bulíx → nyebulíx
    ryu → nyeryú
    exí → enyexí
    yos → enyós
    torá → entyorá
    gir → engyír
    liré → enlyiré
    hanú → enhyanú

Imperative and Hortative

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by zu/ter/[name] ya. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.

lesó → lêso
nar → nār
law → lâwo
xō → xō

Syntax

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

The topic marker sa

Complementary Phrases

Ka as a complementizer

U as a complementizer

The complementizer vin

The attributive

Semantics

Semantics of gender

See also: Gender

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use in to translate "he" and le for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms lunar and solar, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.

Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
Tone or Context Lunar Solar
Praising Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
Flirtatious Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
Teasing Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
Aggressive Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
Narrative Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional

Time

Sample Texts

See also: Saxuma/Texts

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

English Saxuma IPA Gloss
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay. dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj are-born.hab all.cons person human as free and have.attr dignity and right equal.
They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem. ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm have 3p.dat reason.cons and heart.cons ethics, and should behave 3p.dat-ref with heart.cons fraternity.

See Also

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