Saxuma: Difference between revisions

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|-
|-
! Fricatives  
! Fricatives  
| (ɸ) || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || || hʷ
| ɸ~ɸʷ || v⁓β || s⁓t͡s || z⁓d͡z || ç ɕ || ʑ⁓d͡ʑ|| x⁓h || colspan=2 |
|-
|-
! Liquids
! Liquids
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* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.  
* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.  
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.  
* All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.  
* /ɸ/ appears only in loanwords, and may be instead pronounced as [hʷ]
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.  
* /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.  
* /hʷ/ may be realized as [ʍ] and /v/ as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.  
* /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.  
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.  
* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.  
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].  
* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Front-initial diphthongs '''must''' be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].   
** Back-initial diphthongs are '''usually''' pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].   
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently reduced to [e] and [o] respectively. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.  
* In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.  
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.  
* Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.  
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
* Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
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|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|+ Permissible coda-onset sequences
|-
|-
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 |  || colspan=17 | Following Onset
! rowspan=2; colspan=2 |  || colspan=18 | Following Onset
|-
|-
!  p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || f || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w  
!  p || t || k || b || d || g || m || n || ɸ || v || s || z || ɕ || ʑ || r || l || w || j
|-
|-
! rowspan=13| Preceding Coda || p  
! rowspan=14| Preceding Coda || p  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pf]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{no}}  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[pn]}} || {{yes|[pɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[pl]}} || {{yes|[pw]}} || {{yes|[pj]}}
|-
|-
! t  
! t  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tf]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{no}}  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
|-
! k  
! k  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kf]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{no}}  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[km]}} || {{yes|[kn]}} || {{yes|[kɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[kl]}} || {{yes|[kw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
|-
|-
! b  
! b  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[bl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}}  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[bl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
|-
|-
! d
! d
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}}
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
|-
! g
! g
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[gl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}}  
| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[gl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
|-
|-
! m  
! m  
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}}  
| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
|-  
|-  
! n
! n
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}}
| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
|-  
|-  
! s
! s
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sf]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
| {{yes|[sp]}} || {{yes|[st]}} || {{yes|[sk]}} || {{yes|[sb]}} || {{yes|[sd]}} || {{yes|[sg]}} || {{yes|[sm]}} || {{yes|[sn]}} || {{yes|[sɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sr]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[sw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
|-
! z
! z
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[zk]}}||  {{yes|[zb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[zn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[zl]}} || {{yes|[zw]}}
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[zk]}}||  {{yes|[zb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[zn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[zl]}} || {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
|-
! ɕ  
! ɕ  
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕf]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
|-
|-
! ʑ
! ʑ
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑk]}}||  {{yes|[ʑb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑɲ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑʎ]}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}}
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑk]}}||  {{yes|[ʑb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑɲ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑʎ]}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
|-
! x
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɸ]}} || {{yes|[ç]}}
|-
|-
! r
! r
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rf]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rn]}} || {{yes|[rm]}} || {{yes|[rɸ]}} || {{yes|[rv]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[rw]}} || {{yes|[rj]}}
|-
|-
|}
|}
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** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].
** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].


===W Ablaut===
===W-ablaut===


The '''W ablaut''' is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:  
The '''w-ablaut''' is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:  
* a → aw  
* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
* i → yu
* i → yu
* u → ū
* u → ū
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|+ Saxuma Romanization
|+ Saxuma Romanization
|-
|-
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f || ff || g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
! Romanization || a || b || c || d || dy || e || f|| g || gy || h || hy || i || j || k || ky || l || ly || m || n || ny || o || p || q || r || s || sy || t || ty || u || v || w || x || y || z || zy
|-
|-
! IPA
! IPA
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || hʷ~ʍ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x~h || ç || i || ʑ~d͡ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s~t͡s || ɕ || t || c || u || v~β || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
| a || b || c || d || d͡ʑ || ɛ || ɸ || g || d͡ʑ || x || ç || i || ʑ || k || c || l || ʎ || m || n || ɲ || o || p || ʔ || r̥ || s || ɕ || t || c || u || v || w || ɕ || j || z || ʑ
|-
|-
|}
|}
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.  
* Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.  
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
** In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, ''leyo'' ("world") is equivalent to ''léyo'', and ''mabu'' ("to learn") is equivalent to ''mabú''
* A dot is placed above low- and mid-tone, word-final <nowiki><s> and <x></nowiki> to indicate that they are debucalized in the direct form, but retain their typical pronunciation in the construct form. In their construct forms, the dot is removed. Thus ''buliẋ'' is ''bulixu'' in the construct. 
* Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].
* Vowels placed before <nowiki><q></nowiki> represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, ''niqí'' is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].


===Script===
===Script===
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===Verb Morphology===
===Verb Morphology===


There are nine verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.  
There are twelve verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.  


* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.  
* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.  
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <nowiki><s> or <x>.</nowiki>
* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.  
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <f> or <nowiki><h></nowiki>.  
* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.  
* The '''-RA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <r>.  
* The '''-RA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.  
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <l>.  
* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l-.  
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.  
* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.  
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.  
* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.  
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* The '''-R conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -r.  
* The '''-R conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -r.  
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.  
* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.  
* The '''-AW conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.  
* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.  
* The '''-AY conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay.  
* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.  


We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.
We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.
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=====How to conjugate -NA=====
=====How to conjugate -NA=====
The conjugations of -NA for the different classes are as follows:
Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.  
* Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.  
: lesó → lesoná
*: lesó → lesoná
: enjí → enjiná
*: enjí → enjiná
: sigú → signá
*: sigú → signá
 
* -SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is <x>, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
*: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
*: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]
 
* -FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply W-Ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.
*: safá → saw-ná → soná
*: ralí → raw-ná → roná


* -RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.  
-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
*: kurú → kuxná
: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]


* -N, -S, and -H conjugation verbs simply append -ná.  
-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.  
*: ekán → ekanná
: safá → sawná
*: rum → rumná
: ralí → rawná
*: sarás → sarasná
*: oxâ → oxāná


* -R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.  
-RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.  
*: elér → elexná
: kurú → kuxná


* -T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply W-Ablaut, and finally append ná.  
-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.  
*: enák → enaw-ná → enoná
: ekán → ekanná
*: hē → hyo-ná → hyoná
: rum → rumná
: sarás → sarasná
: oxâ → oxāná
: aw → awná
: way → wayná


* -AW verbs morph the final -aw to -o and append -ná.  
-R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.  
*: aw → oná
: elér → elexná
*: law → loná


* -AY verbs morph the final -ay to -e and append -ná
-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
*: way → wená
: enák → enawná
: hē → hyoná


See the summary in the table below:  
See the summary in the table below:  
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|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || soná
| safá || sawná
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA
! colspan=2 | -RA
Line 294: Line 289:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || roná
| ralí || rawná
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -N  
! colspan=2 | -N  
Line 306: Line 301:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -T  
! colspan=2 | -T  
| enák || enoná
| enák || enawná
|-
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxāná
| oxâ || oxāná
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AW
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || loná
| law || lawná
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AY
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wená
| way || wayná
|}
|}


Line 325: Line 320:


=====How to conjugate -BI=====
=====How to conjugate -BI=====
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception:
-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
 
* -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
: enák → enacú
: enák → enacú
: hē → hecú
: hē → hecú
Line 348: Line 341:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sobí
| safá || sawbí
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA
! colspan=2 | -RA
Line 354: Line 347:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || robí
| ralí || rawbí
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -N  
! colspan=2 | -N  
Line 371: Line 364:
| oxâ || oxābí  
| oxâ || oxābí  
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AW
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lobí
| law || lawbí
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AY
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || webí
| way || waybí
|}
|}


Line 386: Line 379:
=====How to Conjugate -WAY=====
=====How to Conjugate -WAY=====


For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception:  
For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.  
* -AW and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.  
: law → lawáy
: ralí → rawáy


See the table below.  
See the table below.  
Line 406: Line 400:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || sofáy
| safá || sawfáy
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA
! colspan=2 | -RA
Line 424: Line 418:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -T  
! colspan=2 | -T  
| enák || enofáy
| enák || enawfáy
|-
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxāfáy
| oxâ || oxāfáy
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AW
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lawáy
| law || lawáy
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AY
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wewáy
| way || waywáy
|}
|}


Line 447: Line 441:
=====How to conjugate -KUN=====
=====How to conjugate -KUN=====


* Regular strong verbs and -N verbs append -kún.  
Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.  
: enjí → enjikún
: enjí → enjikún
: ten → tenkún
: ten → tenkún
: aw → awkún
: way → waykún


* Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
** Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.  
* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.  
: damá → damkún
: damá → damkún
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]
: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]


* -SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.  
-SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.  
: kosá → koqún  
: kosá → koqún  
: exí → eqún  
: exí → eqún  
: kurú → kuqún  
: kurú → kuqún  


* -LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply W ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.  
-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.  
: ralí → rokún
: ralí → rawkún


* -FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply W ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.  
-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.  
: safá → soqún
: safá → sawqún


* -S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.  
-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.  
: herúx → heruqún  
: herúx → heruqún  
: sarás → saraqún  
: sarás → saraqún  
Line 473: Line 469:
: enák → enaqún  
: enák → enaqún  


* -H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.  
-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.  
: oxâ → oxaqún  
: oxâ → oxaqún  
: pē → peqún  
: pē → peqún  
: xō → xoqún  
: xō → xoqún  
* -AW verbs morph the final -aw into -o and append -kún.
: aw → okún
: haw → hokún
* -AY verbs morph the final -ay into -e and append -kún.
: way → wekún


See the summary table below:
See the summary table below:
Line 502: Line 491:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || soqún
| safá || sawqún
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA  
! colspan=2 | -RA  
Line 508: Line 497:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí ||  rokun
| ralí ||  rawkun
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -N  
! colspan=2 | -N  
Line 525: Line 514:
| oxâ || oxaqún
| oxâ || oxaqún
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AW
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lokún
| law || lawkún
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AY
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wekún
| way || waykún
|}
|}


====The Perfective, -W====
====The Perfective, -W====
'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
: Sila kajip.
: ''The guest leaves.''
: Sila'''w''' kajip.
: ''The guest '''has left'''.''
=====How to conjugate -W=====
All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
: lesó → lesô
: sigú → sigû
: exí → exyú
: safá → safáw
: kurú → kurû
: ralí → ralyú
-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
: ekán → ekánla
: rum → rúmla
-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: elér → elyósa
: yos → yôsa
: bulíx → bulyúsa
-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
: enák → enatáw
: hē → hetáw
-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
: oxâ → oxáwsa
: orî → oryúsa
: xō → xôsa
-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
: aw → ála
: ryuláw → ryulála
-Y verbs append -ú.
: way → wayú
See the summary table below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesô
|-
! Weak 
| sigú || sigû
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáw
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA
| kurú || kûsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyú
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekánla
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || saráwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -R
| elér || elyósa
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák || enatáw
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxáwsa
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || lála
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way ||wayú
|}


====The Habitual, -AX====
====The Habitual, -AX====
'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
: Me lesó lyu don.
: ''I read many books.''
: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''
: Mujú aska.
: ''The fish swims.''
: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''
=====How to conjugate -AX=====
Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
* Verbs with final -a append -x.
* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.
This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
: enjí → enjiyáx
: lesó → lesowáx
: lewá → lewáx
: ekán → ekanáx
: way → wayáx
: gir → giráx
: saras → sarasáx
Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
: ralí → ralyáx
: kurú → kurwáx
: wakí → wakyáx
-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
: enák → enatáx
: hē → hetáx
-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
: oxâ → oxaháx
: mosē → moseháx
-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
: maw → maláx
See the summary table below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
|-
! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
| lesó || lesowáx
|-
! Weak 
| sigú ||  sigwáx
|-
! colspan=2 -| -SA
| exí || exyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || safáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA
| kurú || kurwáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || ralyáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -N
| ekán || ekanáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -S
| sarás || sarasáx
|-
! colspan=2 | -R
| elér || eleráx
|-
! colspan=2 | -T
| enák|| enatáx
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxaháx 
|-
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || laláx
|-
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wayáx
|}


====The Attributive, -LA====
====The Attributive, -LA====
Line 541: Line 709:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Verb conjugations by classs and inflection
|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
|-
|-
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
Line 555: Line 723:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -FA
! colspan=2 | -FA
| safá || soná || sobí || sofáy || soqún || safáw || safáx || sosá
| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -RA  
! colspan=2 | -RA  
| kurú || kuxná || kuxbí ||  kuxfáy || kuqún || kûsa || kuxáx || kūsá
| kurú || kuxná || kuxbí ||  kuxfáy || kuqún || kûsa || kurwáx || kūsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -LA
! colspan=2 | -LA
| ralí || roná || robí || rawáy || rokun || rála || ralyáx || ralá  
| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá  
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -N  
! colspan=2 | -N  
Line 567: Line 735:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -S  
! colspan=2 | -S  
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarosá
| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -R  
! colspan=2 | -R  
Line 573: Line 741:
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -T  
! colspan=2 | -T  
| enák || enoná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
|-
|-
! colspan=2  | -H
! colspan=2  | -H
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxosá
| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxawsá
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AW
! colspan=2 | -W
| law || loná || lobí || lawáy || lokún || lála || laláx || lalá  
| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá  
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | -AY
! colspan=2 | -Y
| way || wená || webí || wewáy || wekún || wayú || wayáx || welá
| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
|}
|}


Latest revision as of 14:59, 11 October 2024

Saxuma /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized Sasiouma and historically known as Saras Wima ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 5000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasaois, and an autonomous zone of the Hellenic Republic. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, flexible word order, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasaios speak Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasaios - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasaios and considered official history by the town government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by User:Anisette Biscotti, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant Inventory
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless
Nasals m n ɲ
Plosives p b t d c k g ʔ
Fricatives ɸ~ɸʷ v⁓β s⁓t͡s z⁓d͡z ç ɕ ʑ⁓d͡ʑ x⁓h
Liquids r̥ l ʎ
Glides (ʍ) w j
  • /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when adjacent to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when preceding a velar plosive.
  • Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
  • All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
  • /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
  • /v/ may be realized as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
  • /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
  • The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
  • When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
  • Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
  • Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

Vowels

Vowel Inventory
Front Back
High i iː (y) u uː
Mid ɛ~e eː o oː
Low aː a~ɑ
Diphthongs Front-initial Back-initial
ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
  • Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
    • Front-initial diphthongs must be pronounced as beginning with [i̯] rather than [j] when following /hʷ/, /w/, /r/, and /l/. For example, /wyu/ is pronounced [wi̯u].
    • Back-initial diphthongs are usually pronounced as two vowels in hiatus when followed by a consonant in the coda. For example, /kayx/ is usually pronounced as [kaiɕ].
  • In moderately fast speech, /ay/ and /aw/ are frequently monophthoingized to [eː] and [oː] respectively, and may also be shortened. Potential palatalization from the /ay/ is generally retained.
  • Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
  • Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
  • /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/
  • Unstressed short /u/ is often realized as [y] when following any palatal consonants besides /j/

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). All voiceless phonemes besides /x/, /hʷ/, and /ʔ/ are allowed in codas, as are /n/ and /m/. Voiced plosives and fricatives may appear in codas, but not word-finally.

/j/ is elided following any other palatal consonant.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The following consonant sequences are allowed between syllables. Any not listed is not allowed in any consonant sequences, or is not allowed in its given category.

Permissible coda-onset sequences
Following Onset
p t k b d g m n ɸ v s z ɕ ʑ r l w j
Preceding Coda p [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [ʔm] [pn] [pɸ] No No No No No No [pl] [pw] [pj]
t [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [tm] [ʔn] [tɸ] No No No No No No [ʔl] [tw] [c]
k [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [km] [kn] [kɸ] No No No No No No [kl] [kw] [c]
b [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [ʔm] [bn] No No No No No No No [bl] [bw] [bj]
d [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [dm] [ʔn] No No No No No No No [ʔl] [dw] [d͡ʑ]
g [ʔp] [ʔt] [ʔk] [ʔb] [ʔd] [ʔg] [gm] [gn] No No No No No No No [gl] [gw] [d͡ʑ]
m [mp] No [mk] [mb] No [mg] [mm] [mn] No [mv] [mt͡s] [md͡z] [mɕ] [md͡ʑ] [mbr] [ml] [mw] [mj]
n No [nt] [ŋk] [mb] [nd] [ŋg] [mm] [mn] No [mv] [nt͡s] [nd͡z] [ɲɕ] [ɲd͡ʑ] [nr] [nl] [nw] [ɲ]
s [sp] [st] [sk] [sb] [sd] [sg] [sm] [sn] [sɸ] No No No No No [sr] No [sw] [ɕ]
z No No [zk] [zb] No No No [zn] No No No No No No No [zl] [zw] [ʑ]
ɕ [ɕp] [ɕt] [ɕk] [ɕb] [ɕd] [ɕg] [ɕm] [ɕɲ] [ɕɸ] No No No No No No No [ɕw] [ɕ]
ʑ No No [ʑk] [ʑb] No No No [ʑɲ] No No No No No No No [ʑʎ] [ʑw] [ʑ]
x No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No [ɸ] [ç]
r No No No No No No [rn] [rm] [rɸ] [rv] No No No No No No [rw] [rj]

Pitch Accent

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, kubá [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. kúba [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as kalán 'to cry' vs. kálan 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, 'to drink' is now kobá and beverage is now kō.

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

  • Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, kan [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as baw [ˈbɑo] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as u ("of") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
  • If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. émin [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, xeyáyem [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and zigará [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
  • If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. enâ [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. bābá [bâːˈbá] ("various").
    • When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, enâ would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and bābá as [ba.àˈbá].

W-ablaut

The w-ablaut is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:

  • a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
  • i → yu
  • u → ū
  • e → yo
  • o → ō

Orthography

Romanization

Saxuma Romanization
Romanization a b c d dy e f g gy h hy i j k ky l ly m n ny o p q r s sy t ty u v w x y z zy
IPA a b c d d͡ʑ ɛ ɸ g d͡ʑ x ç i ʑ k c l ʎ m n ɲ o p ʔ r̥ s ɕ t c u v w ɕ j z ʑ
  • Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat. Accents are often not indicated outside of dictionaries and other linguistic texts, except when disambiguation is considered necessary.
    • In texts with accents marked, if a word has no accent, it can be assumed to have ultimate stress if it is a verb, and initial stress otherwise. For example, leyo ("world") is equivalent to léyo, and mabu ("to learn") is equivalent to mabú
  • Vowels placed before ⟨q⟩ represent their etymological pronunciation, not necessarily their current realization. Thus, niqí is pronounced as [nɛˈʔi].

Script

Morphology

Pronouns

Saxuma Pronouns
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
singular plural singular plural neuter singular feminine singular masculine singular plural
generic inclusive exclusive
Direct me ma mazén mawís zu tex dē le in ca
Absolutive mek maká zuká texka dēka lek inka daqá
Genitive omé wimá unú uséx urê olé ohín urá
Construct myo maw zū tero desu leyu inu caw
Dative-Superessive bome bemá bay batéx bade bose bagín bacá

Nominal Morphology

Construct Case

Gender

Verb Morphology

There are twelve verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

  • The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
  • The -SA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.
  • The -FA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
  • The -RA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.
  • The -LA conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l-.
  • The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
  • The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
  • The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
  • The -R conjugation includes all verbs ending in -r.
  • The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
  • The -W conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
  • The -Y conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.

The Negative, -NA

-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.

Sigu palas.
The rabbit runs.
Signa palas.
The rabbit does not run.
How to conjugate -NA

Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.

lesó → lesoná
enjí → enjiná
sigú → signá

-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].

myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]

-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.

safá → sawná
ralí → rawná

-RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.

kurú → kuxná

-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.

ekán → ekanná
rum → rumná
sarás → sarasná
oxâ → oxāná
aw → awná
way → wayná

-R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.

elér → elexná

-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.

enák → enawná
hē → hyoná

See the summary in the table below:

Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Negative -NA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná
Weak sigú signá
-SA exí exná
-FA safá sawná
-RA kurú kuxná
-LA ralí rawná
-N ekán ekanná
-S sarás sarasná
-R elér elexná
-T enák enawná
-H oxâ oxāná
-W law lawná
-Y way wayná

The Causative, -BI

-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.

In sigbi palas.
He makes the rabbit run.
How to conjugate -BI

-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú

enák → enacú
hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Causative -BI
Regular Strong lesó lesobí
Weak sigú sigbí
-SA exí exbí
-FA safá sawbí
-RA kurú kuxbí
-LA ralí rawbí
-N ekán ekanbí
-S sarás sarasbí
-R gir gixbí
-T enák enacú
-H oxâ oxābí
-W law lawbí
-Y way waybí

The Inchoative, -WAY

-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.

Sigway palas.
The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.
How to Conjugate -WAY

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.

law → lawáy
ralí → rawáy

See the table below.

Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Inchoative -WAY
Regular Strong lesó lesowáy
Weak sigú sigwáy
-SA exí exfáy
-FA safá sawfáy
-RA kurú kuxfáy
-LA ralí rawáy
-N ekán ekanwáy
-S sarás sarasfáy
-R elér elexfáy
-T enák enawfáy
-H oxâ oxāfáy
-W law lawáy
-Y way waywáy

The Prospective, -KUN

-KUN, the prospective ending, indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.

Garu le ba be ohin.
She arrives at his house.'
Gaxkun le ba be ohin.
She is/was about to arrive at his house.
How to conjugate -KUN

Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.

enjí → enjikún
ten → tenkún
aw → awkún
way → waykún

Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.

  • Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
damá → damkún
riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]

-SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.

kosá → koqún
exí → eqún
kurú → kuqún

-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.

ralí → rawkún

-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.

safá → sawqún

-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.

herúx → heruqún
sarás → saraqún
gir → giqún
enák → enaqún

-H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.

oxâ → oxaqún
pē → peqún
xō → xoqún

See the summary table below:

Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
Class Example Stem Prospective -KUN
Regular Strong lesó lesokún
Weak sigú sigkún
-SA exí eqún
-FA safá sawqún
-RA kurú kuqún
-LA ralí rawkun
-N ekán ekankún
-S sarás saraqún
-R elér eleqún
-T enák enaqún
-H oxâ oxaqún
-W law lawkún
-Y way waykún

The Perfective, -W

-W, the perfective ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.

Sila kajip.
The guest leaves.
Silaw kajip.
The guest has left.
How to conjugate -W

All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.

lesó → lesô
sigú → sigû
exí → exyú
safá → safáw
kurú → kurû
ralí → ralyú

-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.

ekán → ekánla
rum → rúmla

-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.

elér → elyósa
yos → yôsa
bulíx → bulyúsa

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.

enák → enatáw
hē → hetáw

-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.

oxâ → oxáwsa
orî → oryúsa
xō → xôsa

-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.

aw → ála
ryuláw → ryulála

-Y verbs append -ú.

way → wayú

See the summary table below.

Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Perfective -W
Regular Strong lesó lesô
Weak sigú sigû
-SA exí exyú
-FA safá safáw
-RA kurú kûsa
-LA ralí ralyú
-N ekán ekánla
-S sarás saráwsa
-R elér elyósa
-T enák enatáw
-H oxâ oxáwsa
-W law lála
-Y way wayú

The Habitual, -AX

-AX, the habitual ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.

Me lesó lyu don.
I read many books.
Me lesowáx lyu don.
I have been reading many books.
Mujú aska.
The fish swims.
Mujwáx aska.
Fish swim [in general].
How to conjugate -AX

Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:

  • Verbs with final -a append -x.
  • Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
  • Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
  • Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.

enjí → enjiyáx
lesó → lesowáx
lewá → lewáx
ekán → ekanáx
way → wayáx
gir → giráx
saras → sarasáx

Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.

ralí → ralyáx
kurú → kurwáx
wakí → wakyáx

-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.

enák → enatáx
hē → hetáx

-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.

oxâ → oxaháx
mosē → moseháx

-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.

maw → maláx

See the summary table below.

Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Habitual -AX
Regular Strong lesó lesowáx
Weak sigú sigwáx
-SA exí exyáx
-FA safá safáx
-RA kurú kurwáx
-LA ralí ralyáx
-N ekán ekanáx
-S sarás sarasáx
-R elér eleráx
-T enák enatáx
-H oxâ oxaháx
-W law laláx
-Y way wayáx

The Attributive, -LA

Summary

Verb conjugations by class and inflection
Class Example Stem Negative -NA Causative -BI Inchoative -WAY Prospective -KUN Perfective -W Habitual -AX Attributive -LA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná lesobí lesowáy lesokún lesô lesowáx lesolá
Weak sigú signá sigbí sigwáy sigkún sigû sigwáx siglá
-SA exí exná exbí exfáy eqún exyú exyáx yosá
-FA safá sawná sawbí sawfáy sawqún safáw safáx sawsá
-RA kurú kuxná kuxbí kuxfáy kuqún kûsa kurwáx kūsá
-LA ralí rawná rawbí rawáy rawkún ralyú ralyáx ralá
-N ekán ekanná ekanbí ekanwáy ekankún ekánla ekanáx ekanlá
-S sarás sarasná sarasbí sarasfáy saraqún saráwsa sarasáx sarawsá
-R elér elexná elexbí elexfáy eleqún elyósa eleráx elyosá
-T enák enawná enacú enasfáy enaqún enatáw enatáx enaxá
-H oxâ oxāná oxābí oxafáy oxaqún oxáwsa oxaháx oxawsá
-W law lawná lawbí lawáy lawkún lála laláx lalá
-Y way wayná waybí waywáy waykún wayú wayáx waylá

See Also

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