Aryan: Difference between revisions

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{{Construction}}
{{Construction}}


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: ''*Airáh''<sub>''0''</sub>, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: ''*Āryā́'', pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.
Aryan (Pre-Expansion: ''*Airáh''<sub>''0''</sub>, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: ''*Āryā́'', pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
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|nativename        = *airáh<sub>0</sub>
|nativename        = *airáh<sub>0</sub>


|pronunciation    = ai̯ˈrəʔ
|pronunciation    = əi̯ˈrəʔ
|setting          = Caucasus Mountains
|setting          = Caucasus Mountains
|speakers          = -
|speakers          = -
Line 2,081: Line 2,081:
===Lesson 3===
===Lesson 3===


''*pʰair-'' "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < ''*pʰaírōm'', ''*pʰ∅rmi'') > ''*pʰaíras'' [bare noun], ''*pʰ∅rás'' "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), ''*pʰáras'' [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")
''*gaínōm'', ''*gígnmi'' "I generate"
''*pūhāṓm'', ''*píbmi'' "I drink"
''*wehdḗyōm'', ''*wḗydmi'' "I see"


''*daim-'' "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < ''*daímōm'', ''*d∅mmi'') > ''*daímas'' [bare noun], ''*d∅más'' "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), ''*dámas'' "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")


''*h<sub>1</sub>ed-'' "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < ''*h<sub>1</sub>édōm'', ''*yédmi'') > ''*h<sub>1</sub>édas'' [bare noun], *yedás'' "eater" [adjective-noun], ''*h<sub>1</sub>ádas'' [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")


hodos
 
''*pʰair-'' "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < ''*pʰaírōm'', ''*pʰíprmi'') > ''*pʰaíras'' [bare noun], ''*pʰ∅rás'' "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), ''*pʰáras'' [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")
 
''*daim-'' "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < ''*daímōm'', ''*dídmmi'') > ''*daímas'' [bare noun], ''*d∅más'' "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), ''*dámas'' "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")
 
''*paid-'' "stepping" [n/v] (''*paídōm'', ''*pípdmi'') > ''*paídas'' [bare noun], ''*p∅dás'' "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek  πούς "foot"), ''*pádas'' "step" [result-noun]
 
''*kʰpʰain-'' "expelling" [n/v] (Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > ''*kʰpʰaínas'' [bare noun], ''*kʰpʰ∅nás'' "murderer" [adjective-noun], ''*kʰpʰánas'' "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")
 
''*h<sub>1</sub>ed-'' "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < ''*h<sub>1</sub>édōm'', ''*yédmi'') > ''*h<sub>1</sub>édas'' [bare noun], ''*yedás'' "eater" [adjective-noun], ''*h<sub>1</sub>ádas'' [result-noun]
 




Line 2,113: Line 2,123:
-ōm/mi
-ōm/mi
-āṓm/-mā
-āṓm/-mā
*pʰaír-
-ōm / *-mi (perfective)
*-āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)
í (animated nouns)
ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent
Aryan has a complex system of accent loss
As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)
*paid- ... *p∅dás
*p∅dás > páds > póds
*p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
*p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός
*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/
*pʰrás
laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
*mai > *meh1


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 2,124: Line 2,168:


==References==
==References==
*Behaghel, Otto (1932), ''Deutsche Syntax''
*Benveniste, Émile (1935), ''Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen''
*Collinge, N. E. (1985), ''The Laws of Indo-European''
*Jespersen , Otto (1924), ''The Philosophy Of Grammar''
*Priscianus (6th Century), ''Institutiones Grammaticae''
*Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), ''Die Lehre von der Lautbildung''
*Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), ''Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft''
*Sommerstein, Alan (1973), ''Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek''
*Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), ''Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa''
*Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), ''Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung''
*Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), ''Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung''


Latest revision as of 01:01, 22 November 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /əi̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[əi̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Introduction

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

Transitional Tables

From the Codes to Aryan

Aryan
p *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh
t *thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph
k *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth
b *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
d *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
g *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
pʼ *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
tʼ *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼ kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh
ɗ *dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh
ɠ *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh

From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages

Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian Hittite Tocharian Greek Latin Goidelic Gothic
>*p p; pʰ p; f p p p h; w p; pp p p / pt p ∅ f; β
>*t x x
>*k x x
>*ḱ x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2] 


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5] 		p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] 		f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7] 		t;
c [c] [C 7] 		t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6] 		th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8] 		s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6] 		h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3] 		k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4] 		k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9] 		k k;
q [c][C 9] 		kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9] 		ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10] 		qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11] 		ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2] 		t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3] 		z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8] 		c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10] 		u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2] 		p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b 		b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15] 		b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7] 		th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17] 		d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15] 		d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8] 		j [dz];
z[C 2] 		k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8] 		g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15] 		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10] 		f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2] 		h;
∅[C 2] 		š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ] 		h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20] 		i s;
r[C 2] 		s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6] 		s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15] 		n n;
ñ [ɲ] 		n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2] 		l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ] 		l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2] 		r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅ 		∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2] 		?i i [j];
∅ [C 2] 		∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -∅- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ] 		normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7] 		sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; sθ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] xš[CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] Old English[V 1]
normal umlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; aí [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6] i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
*ə[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ ∅ a, ∅ ā ∅ e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] ḫ a
*h₃[V 10] ∅ o
*- *h₁-[V 11] ∅ e (a?) ∅ a, ∅ e (o) ∅
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
*ē *ē, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
*ā (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
*ō *ō, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; aí [ɛ][V 5] i
*ī *ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15] 		yā ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9] 		ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; aú [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*ū *uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15] 		wā ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama mā mē mā
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃ mō
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę iñ; uñ[V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana nā nē nā
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃ nō
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn iñ; uñ[V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ r̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al lā lē lā
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃ lō
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra rā rē rā
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃ rō
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] normal umlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Phonology

Sounds

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 33 non-click main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal Voiceless *m̥ *n̥
Voiced *m *n
Plosive Voiceless *p *t *k *kʷ *ʔ
Voiced *b *d *g *gʷ
Aspirated- *ph *th *kh *kʷh
Aspirated+ *bh *dh *gh *gʷh
Ejective *p’ *t’ *k’ *kʷ’
Fricative Voiceless *s *x (*xʷ) *ħ *h
Voiced *z *ɣ (*ɣʷ) *ʕ *ɦ
Vibrant Voiceless *r̥
Voiced *r
Lateral Voiceless *l̥
Voiced *l
Approximant Voiceless *j̊ *ẘ
Voiced *j *w

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Meta-Segmentals

X

X

X

Supra-Segmentals

X

X

X

Taxology

Desinencies

Affixes

Roots

Clitics

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Semantics

Phememes

Phones

Morphemes

Phonemes

Tagmemes

Semes

Taxemes

Sememes

Prosodemes

Glossemes

Noemes

Oidemes

Morphology

  • gʷaináh0
  • gʷaināsyas
  • gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas

Lesson 1

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person
"this" "person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Aryan:

*aestad dʰgʰā́m
*aes-tad *dʰgʰā́m
MASCULINE.3PERSON-DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

  • h0e * eah0 *as *ats
    • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
    • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

aes, eah0, ad, sa [animated distal], tad [inanimated distal], aestad, eātad, atad

Lesson 2

German:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative -er[1][2] -∅[3],-e[4] -e[1][4][5], -ie[2], -∅[3] -es[1], -as[2], -∅[3], -e[4] -e[1][3][6], -ie[2], -en[4][5], -er[7]
Genitive -es[2][3][6][7], -en[1][4] -er[1][2][3], -en[4] -es[2][3], -en[1][4] -er[1][2][3], -en[4]
Dative -em[1][2][3], -en[4], -e[6][7] -er[1][2][3], -en[4] -em[1][2][3], -en[4] -en[1][2][3][4][6][7]
Accusative -en[1][2][3][4] -e[1][3][4], -ie[2] -es[1][1], -as[2], -e[4] -e[1][3], -ie[2], -en[4]

^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles; ^5 Declension of regular feminine nouns; ^6 Declension of regular masculine nouns; ^7 Declension of regular neuter nouns.

Russian:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7][9] -а/-я[1][4][5], -ая[2], -ина[3], -ь[9] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] -и/ы[1][4][5][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9]
Genitive -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -и/ы[4][5][6][9] -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[8], -мени[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/-ь[4][5], -ов/-ей[6][7], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ей/-мён(-мян)[9]
Dative -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5], -и[9] -ому[1][2], -иному[3], -у/-ю[8], -мени[9] -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ам/-ям[4][5][6][7][8], -ям/-менам[9]
Accusative.A -ого[1][2], -иного[3], -а/-я[7], -ь[9] -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6], -ь[9] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8], -мя[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -∅/ь[4][5][6], -ов/-ей[7], -а/-я[8], -и/-мена[9]
Accusative.I -от[1], -ый[2], -ин[3], -∅/-ь[7] -ту[1], -ую[2], -ину[3], -у[4][5][6] -о[1], -ое[2], -ино[3], -о/-е[8] -и/-ы[1][7], -ые[2], -ины[3], -∅/-ь[4][5][6], ∅-/-(е)й[8], -ь/-мена[9]
Instrumental -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[7], -ью[9] -ой/-ою//-ей[1][2][4][5][6], -иной/-иною[3], -ю[6], -ью[9] -им[1], -ым[2], -иным[3], -ом/-ем[8], -менем[9] -ими[1], -ыми[2], -иными[3], -ами/-ями[4][5][6][7][8], -ями(ьми)/-менами[9]
Prepositional -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[7], -и[9] -ой[1][2], -иной[3], -е[4][5][6], -и[9] -ом[1][2], -ином[3], -е[8], -мени[9] -их[1], -ых[2], -иных[3], -ах/-ях[4][5][6][7][8], -ях/-менах[9]

^1 Declension of correlatives; ^2 Declension of non-possessive adjectives; ^3 Declension of possessive adjectives; ^4 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^5 Declension of animated feminine nouns ending in a hard consonant and vowel or inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and vowel; ^6 Declension of inanimated feminine nouns ending in a palatal consonant and no vowel; ^7 Declension of animated masculine nouns ending in no vowel; ^8 Declension of neuter nouns; ^9 Declension of nouns ending in hard consonant and no vowel.

LATIN DECLENSION
Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative -e/-us[1], -us, -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -a[1], -is, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -ud, -um[1], -e, -us/-ū, -(i)ēs -ī[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -ae[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Genitive -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī -īus[1], -ae, -ūs, -(i)ēī -īus[1], -ī, -is, -ūs, -(i)ēī -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum -ārum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum -ōrum[1], -ium, -um, -uum, -(i)ērum
Dative -ī[1], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -ī[1], -ae, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -ī[1][3], -ō, -uī/-ū, -(i)ēī -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Accusative -um[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em -am[1], -em, -um/-ū, -(i)em -ud, -um[1], -e, -um/-ū, -(i)em -ōs[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -ās[1], -ēs, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs -a[1], -ia, -ūs/-ua, -(i)ēs
Ablative -ō[1][2], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -ā[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -ō[1], -ī, -ū, -(i)ē -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus -īs[1], -ibus, -(i)ēbus
Vocative -e[1], -is -a[1], -is -ud, -um[1], -e -ī[1], -ēs -ae[1], -ēs, -a[1], -ia

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.

GREEK DECLENSION
Singular Dual Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative -ος[1], -ας/-ης, -(ε)ς, -ων -η/α[1], -(ε)ς, -ων -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες -α
Genitive -ου[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος -ης/-ας[1], -ος/-ως, -ονος -ου[1] -οιν[1] -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1], -ονοιν -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1]
Dative -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῳ[1] -οιν[1], -ονοιν -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1] -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι -αις[1], -οσι -οις[1]
Accusative -ον[1], -α, -ονα -ην[1], -ονα -ον[1] -ω[1] -α[1] -ω[1] -ους[1], -ονας -ας[1], -ονας -α[1]
Vocative -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες, -ονες -α[1]

^1 Declension of correlatives and regular nouns.


ARYAN DECLENSION
Singular Dual Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative *-as *-ah0 *-am *-ā *-āh0 *-ā *-ayn *-ah0in *-a
Genitive *-asyas *-āsyas -ου[1] -οιν[1] -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1], -ονοιν -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1], -ονων -ων[1]
Dative -ῳ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῃ[1], -ι, -ονι -ῳ[1] -οιν[1], -ονοιν -αιν[1], -οιν, -ονοιν -οιν[1] -οις[1], -ας/-ς/-νς, -οσι -αις[1], -οσι -οις[1]
Accusative -ον[1], -α, -ονα -ην[1], -ονα -ον[1] -ω[1] -α[1] -ω[1] -ους[1], -ονας -ας[1], -ονας -α[1]
Vocative -ε[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -η[1], -(ε)ς, -ον -ον[1] -ω[1], -ε, -ονε -α[1], -ε, -ονε -ω[1] -οι[1], -ες, -ονες -αι[1], -ες, -ονες -α[1]

diese schöne Kone эта красивая жена ista pulchra uxor

  • eātad kaláh0 gʷaînah0

Lesson 3

*gaínōm, *gígnmi "I generate" *pūhāṓm, *píbmi "I drink" *wehdḗyōm, *wḗydmi "I see"



*pʰair- "bearing" [n/v] (Latin ferō, Greek φέρω < *pʰaírōm, *pʰíprmi) > *pʰaíras [bare noun], *pʰ∅rás "bearer" [adjective-noun] (Latin fūr, Greek φώρ "thief"), *pʰáras [result-noun] (Greek φόρος "tribute")

*daim- "building" [n/v] (Greek δέμω < *daímōm, *dídmmi) > *daímas [bare noun], *d∅más "building" [adjective-noun] (Greek δῶ "house"), *dámas "house" [result-noun] (Latin domus, Greek δόμος "house")

*paid- "stepping" [n/v] (*paídōm, *pípdmi) > *paídas [bare noun], *p∅dás "foot" [adjective-noun] (Latin pes, Greek πούς "foot"), *pádas "step" [result-noun]

*kʰpʰain- "expelling" [n/v] (Latin de-fendo "I expell from") > *kʰpʰaínas [bare noun], *kʰpʰ∅nás "murderer" [adjective-noun], *kʰpʰánas "murder" [result-noun] (Greek φόνος "murder")

*h1ed- "eating" [n/v] (German esse, Russian ем, Latin edō, Greek ἔδω < *h1édōm, *yédmi) > *h1édas [bare noun], *yedás "eater" [adjective-noun], *h1ádas [result-noun]



In Aryan, personal enclitics are positioned after the first word of a proposition (Wackernagel's Law)

the verb either starts or ends the clause... tendence to follow SOV


  • the finite verb loses accent in an independent clause, except when in first position (always has accent in dependent clause)
  • absolute construction
  • subject is ommitted
  • na pʰaírīt mai
  • pʰaírīt mai na?

h5ígōm, mayás, mai

_(negation=subject/int.pronoun/accented verb)-_()-_(unaccented verb)

The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276. 

Winfred Philipp Lehmann’s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974)

morphological cylce (Hock and Joseph, 1996) Szemerényi 1957: 119; Kuryłowicz 1964: 233; Rasmussen 1999: Meier-Brügger

-ōm/mi -āṓm/-mā

  • pʰaír-

-ōm / *-mi (perfective)

  • -āṓm / *-āmi (perfective)

í (animated nouns) ì (inanimate nouns) *neuter nouns and vocatives have recessive accent Aryan has a complex system of accent loss

As Greek neuter nouns possess recessive accent (especially the monosyllabic ones, which when accented, carry a circunflex)

  • paid- ... *p∅dás
  • p∅dás > páds > póds
  • p∅dás > *póds > pēs, πούς
  • p∅dasyás > *pedés > pedis, ποδός




  • /ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
  • /ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
  • /əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (*gain- >*g∅n-tás > *gnaitás > *gnātós, as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
  • /ai̯/ > */ai̯/
  • pʰrás

laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa

  • mai > *meh1

Syntax

Ich dachte, dass ich der Einzige war, der darüber nachdachte Я думал я один кто об этом подумал...

Prosody

Sample text

References

  • Behaghel, Otto (1932), Deutsche Syntax
  • Benveniste, Émile (1935), Les Origines de la Formation des Noms en Indo-Européen
  • Collinge, N. E. (1985), The Laws of Indo-European
  • Jespersen , Otto (1924), The Philosophy Of Grammar
  • Priscianus (6th Century), Institutiones Grammaticae
  • Sütterlin, Ludwig (1908), Die Lehre von der Lautbildung
  • Szemerényi, Oswald (1970), Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft
  • Sommerstein, Alan (1973), Sound Pattern of Ancient Greek
  • Thomasus Erfordiensis (13th Century), Tractatus de Modis Significandi seu Grammatica Speculativa
  • Wackernagel, Jakob (1892), Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung


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  1. ^ 3
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