Ufirlandisg: Difference between revisions

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[[Jiudisg/Lexicon]]
[[Ufirlandisg/Lexicon]]


<!--  
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' ({{PAGENAME}}: ''ufirlandisg māl'' [ˈʊfʲɛːɫantʲɪsk ˈmɑːɫ] "highland-ish"; from PGmc {{recon|ubiri-land-iskaz}}) is an alternate history Germanic language whose phonology is partly inspired by Mandarin, Burmese and RP. It is spoken in our world's Austria, and belongs to the Thedic branch of Germanic like its sister [[Thedish]].


This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
==TODO==
Let me try Sino-RP in Germanic.


I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
Final -d, -d́ lenite to -:, -j > falling tone?
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.


-->
Final -t becomes glottal stop > rising tone
 
==Introduction==
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (/ˈt͡ʃjəwtʲisk/; from PGmc {{recon|þiudiskaz}}) is an alternate history Germanic language inspired by Mandarin and the Pfeunic language [[Qiāmxdier]]. It is spoken in the area of real-world France.
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
 
<!-- Example categories/headings:
 
Goals
Setting
Inspiration
 
-->
 
<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:
 
Vowel inventory
Consonant inventory
Syllable structure
Stress
Intonation
 
-->


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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!colspan="2" | Labial
!colspan="2" | Labial
!colspan="2" | Dental/Alveolar
!colspan="2" | Dental/Alveolar
!rowspan="2" | Retroflex
!rowspan="2" | Palatal
!rowspan="2" | Palatal
!rowspan="2" | Velar
!rowspan="2" | Velar
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|-
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
!colspan="2"| Nasal
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''mı''' {{IPA|mʲ}}
| '''m''' {{IPA|m}} || '''m&#769;''' {{IPA|mʲ}}
| '''n''' {{IPA|n̪}} || '''nı''' {{IPA|nʲ}}
| '''n''' {{IPA|n̪}} || '''n&#769;''' {{IPA|nʲ}}
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
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!rowspan="2" | Stop<br/>/Affricate
!rowspan="2" | Stop<br/>/Affricate
!<small>tenuis</small>
!<small>tenuis</small>
| '''b''' {{IPA|p}} || '''bı''' {{IPA|pʲ}}
| '''b''' {{IPA|p}} || '''b&#769;''' {{IPA|pʲ}}
| '''d''' {{IPA|t̪}}, '''z''' {{IPA|t̪s}} || '''dı''' {{IPA|tʲ}}
| '''d''' {{IPA|t̪}}, '''z''' {{IPA|t̪s}} || '''d&#769;''' {{IPA|tʲ}}
| '''j''' {{IPA|tʃ}}
| '''dr''' {{IPA|tʂ}}
| '''z&#769;, g&#769;''' {{IPA|tɕ}}
| '''g''' {{IPA|k}}
| '''g''' {{IPA|k}}
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
!<small>aspirated</small>
| '''p''' {{IPA|pʰ}} || '''pı''' {{IPA|pʲʰ}}
| '''p''' {{IPA|pʰ}} || '''p&#769;''' {{IPA|pʲʰ}}
| '''t''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || '''tı''' {{IPA|tʲʰ}}
| '''t''' {{IPA|t̪ʰ}} || '''t&#769;''' {{IPA|tʲʰ}}
| '''q''' {{IPA|tʃʰ}}
| '''tr''' {{IPA|tʂʰ}}
| '''k''' {{IPA|kʰ}}
| '''c&#769;''' {{IPA|tɕʰ}}
| '''c''' {{IPA|kʰ}}
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Fricative
!colspan="2"|Fricative
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''fı''' {{IPA|fʲ}}
| '''f''' {{IPA|f}} || '''f&#769;''' {{IPA|fʲ}}
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} ||  
| '''s''' {{IPA|s}} ||  
| '''x''' {{IPA|ʃ}}
| '''sr''' {{IPA|ʂ}}
| '''s&#769;''' {{IPA|ɕ}}
|
|
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}
| '''h''' {{IPA|h}}
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!rowspan=2| Approximant
!rowspan=2| Approximant
!<small>central</small>
!<small>central</small>
| '''w''' {{IPA|w}} || '''yu''' {{IPA|ɥ}}
| '''w''' {{IPA|w}} || '''wi''' {{IPA|ɥ}}
|colspan="2"| '''r, rı''' {{IPA|ɹ}}
| ||
| '''y''' {{IPA|j}}  
| '''r''' {{IPA|ɹ}}
| '''j''' {{IPA|j}}  
|
|
|
|
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!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
| ||
| ||
| '''l''' {{IPA|ɫ}} || '''lı''' {{IPA|ʎ}}
| '''l''' {{IPA|l~ɫ}} || '''l&#769;''' {{IPA|lʲ}}
|
|
|
|
|
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|}
|}


Jiudisg has an aspiration distinction in stops; however, the distinction is neutralized in word-final position.
{{PAGENAME}} has an aspiration distinction in stops; however, the distinction is neutralized in word-final position.


When consonants written with ı is followed by a vowel, the ı is replaced with an i (except with /i/ and /iː/).
Glottal reinforcement is used, as in RP.
 
When consonants written with an acute accent is followed by a vowel, the acute accent is replaced with an ''i'' (except with /i/ and /iː/).
 
* Broad /l/ is only dark in coda position


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/, '''ü''' /y/
| '''i''' /i/, '''ü, ui''' /y/
| '''ī''' /iː/, '''ǖ''' /yː/
| '''ī''' /iː/, '''ǖ, uī''' /yː/
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''e, (i)e, (yu)e''' /ə/
| '''e''' /ə/
| '''ē''' [ɘː]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''ē''' /ɤː/
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! style="" |Mid
|rowspan="2"|'''(i)a, (yu)e, (ü)e, (u)e''' [ɛ]
|rowspan="2"|'''(i)a, (ü)e, (u)e''' [æ~ɛ]
|rowspan="2"|'''(i)ā, (yu)ē, (ü)ē, (u)ē''' [ɛː]
|rowspan="2"|'''(i)ā, (ü)ē, (u)ē''' [æː~ɛː]
| [ə]
| [ə]
| '''er''' /ɜː/
|  
|  
|  
| '''(u)ō''' /ɔː/
| '''(u)ō''' /ɔː/
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|}
|}


Diphthongs: '''ao ou iu ar/ār ēr ier/īr/ir our/ūr/ur ür/üer/yuer''' /aʊ̯ əʊ̯ jəʊ̯ ɑə(ɹ) ɜː(ɹ) jɛə(ɹ) ɔə(ɹ) ɥœə(ɹ)/  
Semivowel onglides: '''ü u''' /ɥ w/


Younger speakers monophthongize the r-colored vowels to /ɑː ɜː jɛː oː ɥœː/ and use intrusive r. Some dialects are rhotic.
Diphthongs: '''ai au iu''' /aj aw jəw/


In unstressed syllables, the hard vowels ''a, e'' correspond to the soft vowels ''ie/üe, i''.
===Tone===
Ufirlandisg, like Mandarin and Swedish, is a tonal language.
===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
====Intonation====
Primary stress is word-initial except for certain prefixes. There is secondary stress in every compound word component.


===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
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-->
-->
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
{{PAGENAME}} nouns have 2 numbers and 2 cases, but no grammatical gender. The endings are fairly conservative. However, there has been some conflation between different declension paradigms. The nominative has merged with the accusative, and the dative with the genitive. The genitive is thus also used as a dative: ''Yak gab se quanar en apel.'' /jak kap sə ˈtɕɥœnɑɹ ən ˈapʰəɫ/ 'I gave the woman an apple.'
{{PAGENAME}} nouns do not inflect by case. Plurals are most often formed by tone change: ''dal'' /tal1/ 'valley', ''dale'' /tal2/ 'valleys'. Sometimes they are formed with ''-r'' (which amounts to adding a word final schwa): ''name'' /nam2/ 'name', ''namer'' /namə/ 'names'.
 
The indefinite article is indeclinable: ''e'' is used before consonants and ''en'' before vowels. The definite article is likewise always ''se''.
====a-stems====
Also includes the an-stem nouns (which have regularized their declension).
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | a-stem: ''dal'' 'valley'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''dal'' || ''dale''  
|-
! Genitive
| ''dale'' || ''dalem''  
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ja-stem: ''namen'' 'name'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''namen'' || ''namne''
|-
! Genitive
| ''namne'' || ''namnem''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ja-stem: ''bax'' 'berry'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''bax'' || ''baxi''
|-
! Genitive
| ''baxi'' || ''baxim''
|}
 
====Vowel stems====
This class also includes the former ō-stems and u-stems (whose stems end in a hard consonant) and former i-stems, īn-stems and z-stems (whose stems end in a soft consonant).
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ō-stem: ''nasa'' 'nose'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''nasa'' || ''nasar''
|-
! Genitive
| ''nasar'' || ''nasam''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | u-stem: ''xuda'' 'custom'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''xuda'' || ''xudar''
|-
! Genitive
| ''xudar'' || ''xudam''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | i-stem: ''geburjie'' 'birth'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''geburjie'' || ''geburjier''
|-
! Genitive
| ''geburjier'' || ''geburjiem''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | īn-stem: ''lanjinie'' 'length'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''lanjinie'' || ''lanjinier''
|-
! Genitive
| ''lanjinier'' || ''lanjiniem''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | z-stem: ''lambie'' 'lamb'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''lambie'' || ''lambier''
|-
! Genitive
| ''lambier'' || ''lambiem''
|}
 
====r-stems====
This class includes only these kinship terms: ''fadier'' 'father', ''mādier'' 'mother', ''brājier'' (gen. sg. ''brāzra'') 'brother', ''dūtier'' 'daughter', ''xuextier'' (gen. sg. ''xuestra'') 'sister'.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | r-stem: ''fadier'' 'father'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''fadier'' || ''fadrar''
|-
! Genitive
| ''fadrar'' || ''fadram''
|}
 
====Other irregular nouns====
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" | ''muon'' 'man'
|-
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
! style="width: 100px;" | Singular
!  style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
| ''muon'' || ''manier''
|-
! Genitive
| ''manier'' || ''muonam''
|}


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
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|-
|-
! nom.
! nom.
| ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir'' || ''xī'' || ''it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā'' || ''-''
| ''jac'' /jaʔ¹/ || ''jūr'' /joː(ɹ)¹/ || ''ir'' /ɛː(ɹ)¹/ || ''sī'' /ɕɪj¹/ || ''it'' /jɪʔ¹/ || ''sum'' /sʊŋ¹/ || ''jūr'' /joː(ɹ)¹/ || ''niā'' /njɑː(ɹ)¹/ || ''-''
|-
|-
! acc.
! acc.
| ''mik'' || ''jik'' || ''ina'' || ''iya'' || ''it'' || ''unx'' || ''youwe, you'' || ''yā'' || ''xik''
| ''mic'' /mɪʔ¹/ || ''jou'' /jəʊ¹/ || ''zina'' /tɕɪŋ²/ || ''zije'' /tɕɪj²/ || ''it'' /jɪʔ¹/ || ''unś'' /ũːɕ¹/ || ''jou'' /jəʊ¹/ || ''ziā'' /tɕɑː(ɹ)¹/ || ''sic'' /ɕɪʔ¹/
|-
|-
! dat.
! dat.
| ''mir'' || ''jir'' || ''ime'' || ''yar'' || ''ime'' || ''unx'' || ''youwe, you'' || ''imi'' || ''xir''
| ''mir'' /mjɛː(ɹ)¹/ || ''jou'' /jəʊ¹/ || ''zime'' /tɕɪŋ²/ || ''ziarer'' /tɕɑː(ɹ)²/ || ''zime'' /tɕɪŋ²/ || ''unś'' /ũːɕ¹/ || ''jou'' /jəʊ¹/ || ''zim'' /tɕɪŋ¹/ || ''sir'' /ɕɛː(ɹ)¹/
|-
|-
! gen.
! poss.
| ''mīn'' || ''jīn'' || ''yas'' || ''yare'' || ''yas'' || ''unxier'' || ''your'' || ''yara'' || ''xīn''
| ''mīn'' /mɪ̃j¹/ || ''jour'' /jɛː(ɹ)¹, jə(ɹ)¹/ || ''zias'' /tɕəs¹/ || ''ziar'' /tɕɑː(ɹ)¹/ || ''zias'' /tɕəs¹/ || ''unsier'' /ũːɕə(ɹ)/ || ''jour'' /jɛː(ɹ)¹, jə(ɹ)¹/ || ''ziara'' /tɕɑː(ɹ)²/ || ''sīn'' /ɕɪ̃j¹/
|}
|}


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives take ''-a'' (for hard stems) or ''-ie'' (for soft stems) if it is definite or plural: cf. ''se liao watnie'' 'the lukewarm water' vs. ''liao watnie'' 'lukewarm water' vs. ''se watnie ix liao'' 'the water is lukewarm'.
Most adjectives take ''-a'' (for hard stems) or ''-ie'' (for soft stems) if it is definite OR plural: cf.  


The comparative and superlatives are formed by the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-iesd'': ''suōt, suōtier, suōtiesd'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.
*''se liawa watinı'' 'the lukewarm water'
*''liau watinı'' 'lukewarm water'
*''se watinı iś liau'' 'the water is lukewarm'
*''māra bāce'' 'big books'
*''se bāce ir māra'' 'the books are big'
 
The comparative and superlatives are formed by the suffixes ''-ier'' and ''-sd'': ''suōt, suōtier, suōtsd'' 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.


There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.
There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.
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|-
|-
! "good"
! "good"
| ''gād''
| ''gād'' /kɑː²/
| ''batier''
| ''batier'' /patjə(ɹ)/
| ''basd''
| ''basd'' /paht¹/
|-
|-
! "bad"
! "bad"
| ''ubiel''
| ''druk'' /tʂʊʔ¹/
| ''yürxier''
| ''wirsier'' /ɥœːɕə(ɹ)/
| ''yürsd''
| ''wirsd'' /ɥœːht¹/
|-
|-
! "many"
! "many"
| ''füel''
| ''miciel'' /mɪt͡ɕəɫ/
| ''mēr''
| ''mēr'' /mɜː(ɹ)¹/
| ''mēsd''
| ''mēsd'' /mɤːht¹/
|-
! "high"
| ''hao''
| ''haoyuer''
| ''hafsd''
|-
! "near"
| ''niao''
| ''niaoyuer''
| ''niafsd''
|}
|}


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
The verbal system is the most conservative part of Jiudesg grammar. Verbs have three paradigms: athematic stems, thematic a-stems and thematic i-stems.
Verbs have three paradigms: athematic stems, thematic a-stems and thematic i-stems.


Most verbs have three principal parts: the present stem (remove the -n from the infinitive), the past stem and the past participle. The past subjunctive always uses the past participle stem.
Most verbs have three principal parts: the present stem (remove the -n from the infinitive), the past stem and the past participle. The past subjunctive always uses the past participle stem.


====Thematic verbs====
====Thematic verbs====
=====-an verbs=====
=====-en verbs=====
This is the most productive class of verbs.
This is the most productive class of verbs.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''makan'' 'to make''''
|+ '''''maken'' 'to make''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''
! tense || ''jak/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
! present indicative
| ''maka'' || ''makax'' || ''makaj'' || ''makam'' || ''makaz'' || ''makanj''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present
| ''maka'' || ''makas'' || ''maka'' ||  ''makam'' || ''makaz'' || ''makan''
| ''make'' [maʔ²] || ''maked'' [maʔkʰə(ɹ)]
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''makadie'' || ''makadiesd'' || ''makadie'' || ''makadiem'' || ''makadied'' || ''makadien''
| ''makedie'' [maʔkʰɪj] || ''makedie'' [maʔkʰɪj]
|-
! past subjunctive
| ''makadi'' || ''makadisd'' || ''makadi'' || ''makadim'' || ''makadid'' || ''makadin''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''maka!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''makaz!'' || ''-''
| ''-'' || ''mace!'' [maʔ²]
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''makand''
|colspan="2"| ''makend'' [maʔkʰənʔ]
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''makad''
|colspan="2"| ''makedie'' [maʔkʰɪj]
|}
|}


Also: ''lirnan'' 'learn'
Also: ''liaufen'' [ljaʊfən] 'love', ''lirnen'' [ljɛːnən] 'learn'


=====-in verbs=====
=====-ien verbs=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''rēqin'' 'to reach''''
|+ '''''rēcen'' 'to reach''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jak/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''rēqi'' || ''rēqix'' || ''rēqij'' || ''rēqim'' || ''rēqiz'' || ''rēqinj''
| ''rēce'' [ɹɤːʔtʃ²] ||  ''rēced'' [ɹɤːʔtʃʰə(ɹ)]
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''rēqi'' || ''rēqis'' || ''rēqi'' ||  ''rēqim'' || ''rēqiz'' || ''rēqin''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''rēqidie'' || ''rēqidiesd'' || ''rēqidie'' || ''rēqidiem'' || ''rēqidied'' || ''rēqidien''
| ''rēcedie'' [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj] || ''rēcedie'' [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj]
|-
! past subjunctive
| ''rēqidi'' || ''rēqidisd'' || ''rēqidi'' || ''rēqidim'' || ''rēqidid'' || ''rēqidin''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''rēqi!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''rēqiz!'' || ''-''
| ''-'' || ''rēce!'' [ɹɤːʔtʃ²]
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''rēqind''
|colspan="2"| ''rēcend'' [ɹɤːʔtʃʰənʔ]
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''rēqid''
|colspan="2"| ''rēcedie'' [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj]
|}
|}


Also: ''haorin'' 'hear', ''lērin'' 'teach', ''sajin'' 'say', ''bujin'' 'buy', ''ertalin'' 'tell, recount'.
Also: ''arbēdien'' 'work'; ''haurien'' 'hear'; ''lērien'' 'teach'; ''sagien'' 'say'; ''ertalien'' 'tell, recount'; ''ranien'' 'run (transitive), execute, set into motion'
 
Verbs like e.g. ''bringin, bragtie, bragt'' 'bring'; ''bugin, bugtie, bugt'' 'buy'; ''zancin, zagtie, zagt'' - 'think' form a small subclass of the ''-in'' verbs.


====Athematic verbs====
====Athematic verbs====
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{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''bīten'' 'to bite''''
|+ '''''bīten'' 'to bite''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''bīta'' || ''bītier'' || ''bītiedı'' || ''bītem'' || ''bītied'' || ''bītendı''
| ''bīte'' /piːʔ²/ ||  ''bīted'' /piːʔə(ɹ)/
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''bīte'' || ''bīter'' || ''bīte'' ||  ''bītem'' || ''bīted'' || ''bīten''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''bēt'' || ''bētsd'' || ''bēt'' || ''bētam'' || ''bētad'' || ''bētan''
| ''bēt'' /pɤːʔ¹/ || ''bēt'' /pɤːʔ¹/
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''biti'' || ''bitisd'' || ''biti'' || ''bitim'' || ''bitid'' || ''bitin''
| ''biti'' /pɪʔɪ/ || ''biti'' /pɪʔɪ/
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bīt!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''bītied!'' || ''-''
| ''-'' || ''bīt!'' /piːʔ²/
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''bītend''
|colspan="3"| ''bītend'' /piːʔənʔ/
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''biten''
|colspan="3"| ''biten'' /pɪʔən/
|}
|}
Also: ''xjīnen, sgēn, xjinen'' 'shine', ''drīfen, drēf, drifen'' 'drive', ''klīfen, klēf, klifen'' 'stick, cling'
Also: ''sgīnen, sgēn, sginen'' 'shine', ''drīfen, drēf, drifen'' 'drive', ''clīfen, clēf, clifen'' 'stick, cling', ''rīten, rēt, riten'' 'write'


=====Strong class 2=====
=====Strong class 2=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''qiaosen'' 'to choose''''
|+ '''''fliaugen'' 'to fly, flee''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jak/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''qiaosa'' || ''qiaoxier'' || ''qiaoxiedı'' || ''qiaosem'' || ''qiaoxied'' || ''qiaosendı''
| ''fliauge'' /tʃaʊs²/ ||  ''fliauged'' /tʃaʊsə(ɹ)/
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''qiaose'' || ''qiaoser'' || ''qiaose'' ||  ''qiaosem'' || ''qiaosed'' || ''qiaosen''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''kaos'' || ''kaosd'' || ''kaos'' || ''kaosam'' || ''kaosad'' || ''kaosan''  
| ''flaug'' /ˈkʰaʊs¹/ || ''flaug'' /ˈkʰaʊs¹/
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''kuri'' || ''kurisd'' || ''kuri'' || ''kurim'' || ''kurid'' || ''kurin''  
| ''flugi'' /ˈkʰʊɹɪ/ || ''flugi'' /ˈkʰʊɹɪ/
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''qiaos!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''qiaoxied!'' || ''-''
| ''-'' || ''fliaug!'' /tʃaʊs²/
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''qiaosend''
|colspan="2"| ''fliaugend'' / /tʃaʊsənʔ/
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''kuren''
|colspan="2"| ''flugen'' /ˈkʰʊɹən/
|}
|}
Also: ''biaoden, baod, buden'' 'offer, bid', ''biaogen, baog, bugen'' 'bow', ''fliaogen, flaog, flugen'' 'fly', ''fliaowen, flao, fluwen'' 'flee, escape', ''friaosen, fraos, frusen'' 'freeze'
Also: ''biauden, baud, buden'' 'offer, bid', ''biaugen, baug, bugen'' 'bow', ''fliaugen, , flugen'' 'fly', ''fliawen, flau, fluwen'' 'flee, escape', ''friausen, fraus, fruren'' 'freeze'


=====Strong class 3=====
=====Strong class 3=====
Line 529: Line 338:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''
|+ '''''binden'' 'to tie, to bind''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
! present indicative
| ''binda'' || ''bindier'' || ''bindiedı'' || ''bindem'' || ''bindied'' || ''bindendı''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present
| ''binde'' || ''binder'' || ''binde'' ||  ''bindem'' || ''binded'' || ''binden''
| ''bindie'' || ''bindied''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''band'' || ''bandsd'' || ''band'' || ''bandam'' || ''bandad'' || ''bandan''  
| ''band'' || ''band''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''bundi'' || ''bundisd'' || ''bundi'' || ''bundim'' || ''bundid'' || ''bundin''  
| ''bundi'' || ''bundi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''bind!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''bindied!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''bind!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="7"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''bindend''
|colspan="4"| ''bindend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''bunden''
|colspan="4"| ''bunden''
|}
|}


Also: ''bieginen, biegan, biegunen'' 'begin', ''drinken, drank, drunken'' 'drink', ''finzen, fanz, funzen'' 'find', ''grinden, grand, grunden'' 'grind', ''yuerpen, warp, wurpen'' 'throw'
Also: ''bieginen, biegan, biegunen'' 'begin'; ''drincen, dranc, druncen'' 'drink'; ''finzen, fanz, funzen'' 'find'; ''grinden, grand, grunden'' 'grind'; ''rinen, ran, runen'' 'run'; ''sbringen, sbrang, sbrungen'' 'burst, explode'; ''simben, samb, sumben'' 'sing'; ''wierpen, warp, wurpen'' 'throw'; ''źrimben, zramb, zrumben'' 'press, force, push through'


=====Strong class 4=====
=====Strong class 4=====
In Jiudisg, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.
In {{PAGENAME}}, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''
|+ '''''biaren'' 'to carry''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''biara'' || ''biarier'' || ''biariedı'' || ''biarem'' || ''biaried'' || ''biarendı''
| ''biarie'' || ''biaried''  
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''biare'' || ''biarer'' || ''biare'' ||  ''biarem'' || ''biared'' || ''biaren''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''bar'' || ''barsd'' || ''bar'' || ''baram'' || ''barad'' || ''baran''  
| ''bar'' || ''bar''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''buri'' || ''burisd'' || ''buri'' || ''burim'' || ''burid'' || ''burin''  
| ''buri'' || ''buri''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''biar!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''biaried!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''biar!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''biarend''
|colspan="2"| ''biarend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''buren''
|colspan="2"| ''buren''
|}
|}
Also: ''briaken, brak, bruken'' 'break', ''niamen, nam, numen'' 'take', ''qiamen, kam, kumen'' 'come', ''sbriaken, sbrak, sbruken'' 'speak', ''xdialen, sdal, sdulen'' 'steal', ''hialpen, halp, hulpen'' 'help', ''driasg, drasg, drusgen'' 'thresh', ''xdiarf, sdarf, sdurfen'' 'die'
Also: ''briaken, brak, bruken'' 'break', ''niamen, nam, numen'' 'take', ''piamen, pam, pumen'' 'come', ''sbriaken, sbrak, sbruken'' 'speak', ''sdialen, sdal, sdulen'' 'steal', ''hialpen, halp, hulpen'' 'help', ''driasg, drasg, drusgen'' 'thresh', ''sdiarf, sdarf, sdurfen'' 'die'


=====Strong class 5=====
=====Strong class 5=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''jiafen'' 'to give''''
|+ '''''giafen'' 'to give''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''jiafa'' || ''jiafier'' || ''jiafiedı'' || ''jiafem'' || ''jiafied'' || ''jiafendı''
| ''giafie'' ||  ''giafied''  
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''jiafe'' || ''jiafer'' || ''jiafe'' ||  ''jiafem'' || ''jiafed'' || ''jiafen''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''gaf'' || ''gafsd'' || ''gaf'' || ''gafam'' || ''gafad'' || ''gafan''  
| ''gaf'' || ''gaf''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''jiafi'' || ''jiafisd'' || ''jiafi'' || ''jiafim'' || ''jiafid'' || ''jiafin''  
| ''giafi'' || ''giafi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''jiaf!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''jiafied!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''giaf!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''jiafend''
|colspan="3"| ''giafend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''jiafen''
|colspan="3"| ''giafen''
|}
|}
Also: ''driapen, drap, driapen'' 'hit, meet', ''ferjiaten, fergat, ferjiaten'' 'forget', ''liasen, las, liaren'' 'read', ''xiawen, sao, xiawen'' 'see'. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidin, bad, biaden'' 'beg, pray', ''lijin, lag, liagen'' 'lie'
Also: ''driapen, drap, driapen'' 'hit, meet', ''fergiaten, fergat, fergiaten'' 'forget', ''liasen, las, liaren'' 'read', ''siawen, saw, siawen'' 'see'. There are also the j-present verbs ''bidin, bad, biaden'' 'beg, pray', ''ligin, lag, liagen'' 'lie'


=====Strong class 6=====
=====Strong class 6=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''grafen'' 'to dig''''
|+ '''''grafen'' 'to dig''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present
| ''grafa'' || ''grafier'' || ''grafiedı'' || ''grafem'' || ''grafied'' || ''grafendı''
| ''grafie'' || ''grafied''  
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''grafe'' || ''grafer'' || ''grafe'' ||  ''grafem'' || ''grafed'' || ''grafen''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''grāf'' || ''grāfsd'' || ''grāf'' || ''grāfam'' || ''grāfad'' || ''grāfan''  
| ''grāf'' || ''grāf''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''grafi'' || ''grafisd'' || ''grafi'' || ''grafim'' || ''grafid'' || ''grafin''  
| ''grafi'' || ''grafi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''graf!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''grafied!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''graf!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''grafend''
|colspan="3"| ''grafend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''grafen''
|colspan="3"| ''grafen''
|}
|}
Also: ''faren, fār, faren'' 'spread', ''slagen, slāg, slagen'' 'strike', ''standen, stānd, standen'' 'stand', ''wagsen, wāgs, wagsen'' 'grow', ''wasgen, wāsg, wasgen'' 'wash', ''yaten, yāt, yaten'' 'eat' (reclassified from class 5)
Also: ''faren, fār, faren'' 'spread', ''slagen, slāg, slagen'' 'strike', ''sdanden, sdānd, sdanden'' 'stand', ''wagsen, wāgs, wagsen'' 'grow', ''wasgen, wāsg, wasgen'' 'wash', ''jaten, jāt, jaten'' 'eat' (reclassified from class 5)


=====Strong class 7=====
=====Strong class 7=====
''hēten, hīt, hīten'' - to be called
''laupen, liaup, liaupen'' - to jump, leap
''sdauten, sdiaut, sdiauten'' - to bump, collide, crash
''hald, hiald, hialden'' - to hold
''liāten, līt, liāten'' - to let
''siān, siādie, siād'' - to sow (regularized)


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
=====''yüten'' 'to know'=====
=====''witen'' 'to know'=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''yüten'' 'to know''''
|+ '''''witen'' 'to know''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''wōt'' || ''wōsd'' || ''wōt'' || ''yütam'' || ''yütad'' || ''yütan''  
| ''wōt''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yüti'' || ''yütir'' || ''yüti'' ||  ''yütim'' || ''yütid'' || ''yütin''
| ''witi''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''yüxdie'' || ''yüxdiesd'' || ''yüxdie'' || ''yüxdiem'' || ''yüxdied'' || ''yüxdien''  
| ''wisdie''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''yüxdi'' || ''yüxdisd'' || ''yüxdi'' || ''yüxdim'' || ''yüxdid'' || ''yüxdin''  
| ''wisdi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''yüsd!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''yütad!'' || ''-''
| ''wit!''
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="3"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''yütend''
|colspan="2"| ''witend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''yüsd''
|colspan="2"| ''wisd''
|}
|}


=====''kunen'' 'can'=====
=====''cunen'' 'can, be able to'=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''kunen'' 'can''''
|+ '''''cunen'' 'can''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''kan'' || ''kansd'' || ''kan'' || ''kunam'' || ''kunad'' || ''kunan''  
| ''can''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''kuni'' || ''kunir'' || ''kuni'' ||  ''kunim'' || ''kunid'' || ''kunin''
| ''cuni''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''kundie'' || ''kundiesd'' || ''kundie'' || ''kundiem'' || ''kundied'' || ''kundien''  
| ''cundie''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''kundi'' || ''kundisd'' || ''kundi'' || ''kundim'' || ''kundid'' || ''kundin''  
| ''cundi''  
|}
|}


Similarly ''sgulen'' 'should', ''zurfen'' 'must'.
Similarly ''sgulen'' 'should', ''zurfen'' 'have to'.


=====''magen'' 'may'=====
=====''magen'' 'may'=====
The present forms of this verb are derived from PGmc {{recon|''maganą''}} (~ Eng. ''may'', ''might''), and the past forms are from PGmc {{recon|''mōtaną''}} (~ Eng. ''must'').
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''magen'' 'may''''
|+ '''''magen'' 'may''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''mag'' || ''magsd'' || ''mag'' || ''magam'' || ''magad'' || ''magan''  
| ''mag''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''magi'' || ''magir'' || ''magi'' ||  ''magim'' || ''magid'' || ''magin''
| ''magi''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''mātie'' || ''mātiesd'' || ''mātie'' || ''mātiem'' || ''mātied'' || ''mātien''  
| ''māsdie''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''māti'' || ''mātisd'' || ''māti'' || ''mātim'' || ''mātid'' || ''mātin''  
| ''māsdi''  
|}
|}


====Other irregular verbs====
====Other irregular verbs====
=====''yülen'' 'want to, will'=====
=====''wilen'' 'want to, will'=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''yülen'' 'want to, will''''
|+ '''''wilen'' 'want to, will''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''yǖ'' || ''yǖsd'' || ''yǖ'' || ''yǖm'' || ''yǖd'' || ''yǖn''  
| ''wī'' || ''wīd''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''yüli'' || ''yülis'' || ''yüli'' ||  ''yülim'' || ''yüliz'' || ''yülin''
| ''wili'' ||  ''wilid''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''yüldie'' || ''yüldiesd'' || ''yüldie'' || ''yüldiem'' || ''yüldied'' || ''yüldien''  
| ''wildie'' || ''wildie''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''yüldi'' || ''yüldisd'' || ''yüldi'' || ''yüldim'' || ''yüldid'' || ''yüldin''  
| ''wildi'' || ''wildi''  
|}
|}


=====''biaon'' 'be'=====
=====''biaun'' 'be'=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''biaon'' 'to be''''
|+ '''''biaun'' 'to be''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac'' || ''jūr'' || ''ir/sī/it'' || ''sum'' || ''niā''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''im'' || ''ir'' || ''ix'' || ''üram'' || ''ürad'' || ''üranj''  
| ''im'' || ''ired''/''ir'' || ''iś'' || ''irem''/''ir'' || ''ir''
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''xiye'' || ''xiyer'' || ''xiye'' ||  ''xiyem'' || ''xiyed'' || ''xiyen''
| ''sije'' || ''sijed'' || ''sijed'' ||  ''sijed'' || ''sije''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''was'' || ''wasd'' || ''was'' || ''yuēram'' || ''yuērad'' || ''yuēran''  
| ''was'' || ''wiēra'' || ''was'' || ''wiēra'' || ''wiēra''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''yuēri'' || ''yuērisd'' || ''yuēri'' || ''yuērim'' || ''yuērid'' || ''yuērin''  
| ''wiēri'' || ''wiēri'' || ''wiēri'' || ''wiēri'' || ''wiēri''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''biao!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''biaod!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''biau!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''-''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="6"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''yuesend''
|colspan="5"| ''wiesend''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''yuēren''
|colspan="5"| ''wiēren''
|}
|}


Line 770: Line 579:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''han'' 'to have (auxiliary)''''
|+ '''''han'' 'to have (auxiliary)''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''ha'' || ''hax'' || ''haj'' || ''ham'' || ''haz'' || ''hanj''  
| ''ha'' || ''had''  
|-
|-
! present subjunctive
! present subjunctive
| ''hafe'' || ''hafis'' || ''hafi'' ||  ''hafim'' || ''hafiz'' || ''hafin''
| ''hafi'' ||  ''hafid''  
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''hadie'' || ''hadiesd'' || ''hadie'' || ''hadiem'' || ''hadied'' || ''hadien''  
| ''hadie'' || ''hadie''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''hadi'' || ''hadisd'' || ''hadi'' || ''hadim'' || ''hadid'' || ''hadin''  
| ''hadi'' || ''hadi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''ha!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''haz!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''ha!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''hafind''
|colspan="3"| ''hafind''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''had''
|colspan="3"| ''had''
|}
|}


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{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''dān'' 'to do''''
|+ '''''dān'' 'to do''''
! tense || ''yak'' || ''zū'' || ''ir/xī/it'' || ''yǖr'' || ''yūr'' || ''yā''  
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''
|-
! present
| ''dā'' ||  ''dād''
|-
! past indicative
| ''diadie'' || ''diadie''  
|-
! past subjunctive
| ''diadi'' ||  ''diadi''
|-
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''dā!''
|-
!colspan="4"|
|-
! present participle
|colspan="3"| ''dānd''
|-
! past participle
|colspan="3"| ''dān''
|}
 
=====''gān'' 'go'=====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
|+ '''''gān'' 'to go''''
! tense || ''jac/niā'' || ''jūr/ir/sī/it/sum''  
|-
|-
! present indicative
! present indicative
| ''dā'' || ''dāx'' || ''dāj'' || ''dām'' || ''dāz'' || ''dānj''
| ''gā'' ||  ''gād''  
|-
! present subjunctive
| ''dā'' || ''dās'' || ''dā'' ||  ''dām'' || ''dāz'' || ''dān''
|-
|-
! past indicative
! past indicative
| ''diadie'' || ''diadiesd'' || ''diadie'' || ''diadiem'' || ''diadied'' || ''diadien''  
| ''giang'' || ''giang''  
|-
|-
! past subjunctive
! past subjunctive
| ''diadi'' || ''diadisd'' || ''diadi'' || ''diadim'' || ''diadid'' || ''diadin''  
| ''giangi'' || ''giangi''  
|-
|-
! imperative
! imperative
| ''-'' || ''dā!'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''dāz!'' || ''-''  
| ''-'' || ''gā!''  
|-
|-
!colspan="7"|
!colspan="4"|
|-
|-
! present participle
! present participle
|colspan="6"| ''dānd''
|colspan="3"| ''gānd''
|-
|-
! past participle
! past participle
|colspan="6"| ''dān''
|colspan="3"| ''giangen''
|}
|}
Also: ''fān'' - to get, to obtain


===Derivational morphology===
===Derivational morphology===
*''and-'': 'de-, dis-'
*''bie-'': "be-", forms applicatives
**''biecrīten'' 'complain about' < ''crīten'' 'complain'
**''bierīten'' 'describe' < ''rīten'' 'write'
**''biesingen'' 'praise' < ''singen'' 'sing'
*''-bier'': '-able'
*''-bier'': '-able'
**''yatebier'' 'edible' < ''yaten'' 'to eat'
**''jatebier'' 'edible' < ''jaten'' 'to eat'
*''-lik'': forms adjectives from nouns
*''er-'': telic, ~ German ''er-''
*''fer-'': "for-"
**''ferwundran'' 'surprise, amaze' < ''wunder'' 'wonder, miracle'
*''fur-'': "fore-"
*''-ful'': "-ful"
*''ge-''
**''gebiaren'' 'give birth' < ''biaren'' 'bear, carry'
*''-hēd'': -ness, -hood
*''-ig'': forms adjectives from nouns
*''-laus'': "-less"
*''-ling'': "-ling"
*''-lik'': "-ly"; forms adjectives from nouns
**''wurdlik'' 'literal' < ''wurd'' 'word'
**''wurdlik'' 'literal' < ''wurd'' 'word'
*''-nunga'': forms nouns from verbs
*''mis-'': "mis-"
**''hētinunga'' 'heating' < ''hētin'' 'to heat'
*''-nes'': forms nouns from verbs
*''-sam'': "-some"
*''un-'': "un-" (negation or opposite)
**''unrāwa'' 'unrest, unease'
*''-unga'': forms nouns from verbs
**''hētiunga'' 'heating' < ''hētin'' 'to heat'


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Like in German, prepositions govern certain defined cases and change meaning based on the case of the noun. Prepositions may govern the nominative (accusative for pronouns) or the genitive (dative for pronouns). Ordinals are formed with the suffix ''-za''.
Like in German, prepositions govern certain defined cases and change meaning based on the case of the noun. Prepositions may govern the nominative (accusative for pronouns) or the genitive (dative for pronouns). Ordinals are formed with the suffix ''-za''.
*''an'' = (+ acc) onto; (+ dat) on
*''fur'' = (+ acc) for; (+ dat) before
*''gagin'' = (+ acc) against
*''in'' = (+ acc) into; (+ dat) in
*''mid́'' = (+ dat) with
*''ta'' = (+ dat) to, towards
*''tuigs'' (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) between
*''ufir'' = (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) across, over
*''undier'' = (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) under, between, among
*''wizer'' = (+ acc) at, next to, by
*''zank'' = (+ dat) thanks to


===Numbers===
===Numbers===
*1: ''ēn'' /əːn/ (ordinal ''ērsd'')
Base-120 system.
*2: ''tuō'' /tʰwɔː/ (ordinal ''anzar'')
*1: ''ēn'' /ɤːn/ (ordinal ''ērsd'')
*3: ''zrī'' /tsɹiː/
*2: ''tuō'' /tʰwɔː/ (ordinal ''anzier'')
*4: ''fiur'' /fʲɔə/
*3: ''zrī'' /tsrʲiː/
*4: ''fiur'' /fʲʊr/
*5: ''finf'' /fʲinf/
*5: ''finf'' /fʲinf/
*6: ''xiags'' /ʃaks/
*6: ''siags'' /ʃaks/
*7: ''xuef'' /ʃɥœf/
*7: ''süef'' /ʃɥœf/
*8: ''āta'' /ˈaːtʰa/
*8: ''agta'' /ˈaːktʰa/
*9: ''niaon'' /nʲaun/
*9: ''niaun'' /nʲaun/
*10: ''tiaon'' /tʲʰaun/
*10: ''tiaun'' /tʲʰaun/
*11: ''ēnlif''
*11: ''ēnlif''
*12: ''tuōlif''
*12: ''tuōlif''
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*14: ''fiurtiun''
*14: ''fiurtiun''
*15: ''finftiun''
*15: ''finftiun''
*16: ''xiagstiun''
*16: ''siagstiun''
*17: ''xueftiun''
*17: ''süeftiun''
*18: ''āttiun''
*18: ''agtiun''
*19: ''niaontiun''
*19: ''niauntiun''
*20: ''tuōntig''
*20: ''tuōntig''
*30: ''zrītig''
*30: ''zrītig''
*40: ''fiurtig''
*40: ''fiurtig''
*50: ''finftig''
*50: ''finftig''
*60: ''xiagstig''
*60: ''siagstig''
*70: ''xueftig''
*70: ''süeftig''
*80: ''āttig''
*80: ''agtig''
*90: ''niaontig''
*90: ''niauntig''
*100: ''hundrad''
*100: ''tiauntig''
*1000: ''zūsandı''
*110: ''ēnliftig''
*120: ''hundrad''
*14400: ''zūsand́''


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
Word order is V2 (also SAuxVO), but is VSO in questions and VO in imperatives:
Word order is SVO, and VO in imperatives. Questions may use a question particle ''jez'' at the end, but this is optional.


:'''''Xī ix mīn lērarı.'''''
:'''''Sī iś mīn lēraŕ.'''''
:''She is my teacher.''
:''She is my teacher.''


:'''''Murgen bujie yak ubati.'''''
:'''''Giasdern jac giang bugin ubati.'''''
:''Tomorrow I'm buying fruit.''
:''Yesterday I went to buy fruit.''


:'''''Wōsd zū zat ēnq?'''''
:'''''Nie wōt jūr zat jez?'''''
:''Don't you know that?''
:''Don't you know that?''


:'''''Yat jīn krūtsakar!'''''
:'''''Jat sīn krūtsakar!'''''
:''Eat your vegetables!''
:''Eat your vegetables!''


Verbs are negated with ''ēnq'':
Verbs are negated with ''nie'' placed before the verb:


:'''''Yak ferstanda ēnq huat zū sajiex.'''''
:'''''Jac nie fersdanda huat sagid jūr.'''''
:''I don't understand what you're saying.''
:''I don't understand what you're saying.''


===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Both adjectives and genitives follow nouns.
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
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==Example texts==
==Example texts==
===Featured language banner===
:'''''Zis sbriakmāl was ēns furrigtid.'''''
:/tɕɪs sprʲaʔmɑːɫ was ɤ̃ːs foːrɪjtɪj/
:''This language was once featured.''
:'''''Zank zias miāt af fullikhēt, fīnhēt auk brūklikhēt, sum sdamnidie it ta furrigtin.'''''
:/tsãʔ tɕəs mjɑːʔ əʊ fʊlɪʔɤːʔ, fɪ̃jxɤːʔ aʊʔ bɹʊuʔlɪʔɤːʔ sʊŋ stamnɪj ɪʔ tə foːrɪjtɪŋ/
:''Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility and usage features, it has been voted as featured.''
==Phrasebook==
*''Gād murgen!'' [kaːt ˈmʊrkɨn] - Good morning!
*''Gād dag!'' [kaːt tak] - Hello! Good day!
*''Gād üēfend!'' [kaːt ˈɥœːfɨnt] - Good evening!
*''Gād nātie!'' [kaːt ˈnaːtʰʲɛ] - Good night!
*''Wialkumen!'' [ˈɥœɫkʰʊmɨn] - Welcome!
*''Hēta jac...'' [ˈhɤːtʰa jak...] - My name is...
*''Zanke!'' [tsaŋkʰə] - Thank you!
*''Mir/Unś iś rǖ.'' [mʲɪr/ʊnʃ ɪʃ rʲyː] - I'm/We're sorry.
*''Nie sbriaka jac {{PAGENAME}}.'' - I don't speak {{PAGENAME}}.
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
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[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Lõis]]

Latest revision as of 17:39, 20 February 2019

Ufirlandisg/Lexicon

Ufirlandisg (Ufirlandisg: ufirlandisg māl [ˈʊfʲɛːɫantʲɪsk ˈmɑːɫ] "highland-ish"; from PGmc *ubiri-land-iskaz) is an alternate history Germanic language whose phonology is partly inspired by Mandarin, Burmese and RP. It is spoken in our world's Austria, and belongs to the Thedic branch of Germanic like its sister Thedish.

TODO

Let me try Sino-RP in Germanic.

Final -d, -d́ lenite to -:, -j > falling tone?

Final -t becomes glottal stop > rising tone

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental/Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
plain pal. plain pal.
Nasal m m ḿ mʲ n n̪ ń nʲ
Stop
/Affricate 		tenuis b p b́ pʲ d t̪, z t̪s d́ tʲ dr tʂ ź, ǵ tɕ g k
aspirated p pʰ ṕ pʲʰ t t̪ʰ t́ tʲʰ tr tʂʰ ć tɕʰ c kʰ
Fricative f f f́ fʲ s s sr ʂ ś ɕ h h
Approximant central w w wi ɥ r ɹ j j
lateral l l~ɫ ĺ lʲ

Ufirlandisg has an aspiration distinction in stops; however, the distinction is neutralized in word-final position.

Glottal reinforcement is used, as in RP.

When consonants written with an acute accent is followed by a vowel, the acute accent is replaced with an i (except with /i/ and /iː/).

  • Broad /l/ is only dark in coda position

Vowels

Vowel phonemes
Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i /i/, ü, ui /y/ ī /iː/, ǖ, uī /yː/ u /u/ ū /uː/
Close-mid e /ə/ ē /ɤː/
Mid (i)a, (ü)e, (u)e [æ~ɛ] (i)ā, (ü)ē, (u)ē [æː~ɛː] [ə] (u)ō /ɔː/
Open a /a/ ā /aː/

Semivowel onglides: ü u /ɥ w/

Diphthongs: ai au iu /aj aw jəw/

In unstressed syllables, the hard vowels a, e correspond to the soft vowels ie/üe, i.

Tone

Ufirlandisg, like Mandarin and Swedish, is a tonal language.

Prosody

Stress

Primary stress is word-initial except for certain prefixes. There is secondary stress in every compound word component.

Morphology

Nouns

Ufirlandisg nouns do not inflect by case. Plurals are most often formed by tone change: dal /tal1/ 'valley', dale /tal2/ 'valleys'. Sometimes they are formed with -r (which amounts to adding a word final schwa): name /nam2/ 'name', namer /namə/ 'names'.

Pronouns

case 1sg. 2sg. 3sg. 1pl. 2pl. 3pl. reflexive
'he' 'she' 'it'
nom. jac /jaʔ¹/ jūr /joː(ɹ)¹/ ir /ɛː(ɹ)¹/ sī /ɕɪj¹/ it /jɪʔ¹/ sum /sʊŋ¹/ jūr /joː(ɹ)¹/ niā /njɑː(ɹ)¹/ -
acc. mic /mɪʔ¹/ jou /jəʊ¹/ zina /tɕɪŋ²/ zije /tɕɪj²/ it /jɪʔ¹/ unś /ũːɕ¹/ jou /jəʊ¹/ ziā /tɕɑː(ɹ)¹/ sic /ɕɪʔ¹/
dat. mir /mjɛː(ɹ)¹/ jou /jəʊ¹/ zime /tɕɪŋ²/ ziarer /tɕɑː(ɹ)²/ zime /tɕɪŋ²/ unś /ũːɕ¹/ jou /jəʊ¹/ zim /tɕɪŋ¹/ sir /ɕɛː(ɹ)¹/
poss. mīn /mɪ̃j¹/ jour /jɛː(ɹ)¹, jə(ɹ)¹/ zias /tɕəs¹/ ziar /tɕɑː(ɹ)¹/ zias /tɕəs¹/ unsier /ũːɕə(ɹ)/ jour /jɛː(ɹ)¹, jə(ɹ)¹/ ziara /tɕɑː(ɹ)²/ sīn /ɕɪ̃j¹/

Adjectives

Most adjectives take -a (for hard stems) or -ie (for soft stems) if it is definite OR plural: cf.

  • se liawa watinı 'the lukewarm water'
  • liau watinı 'lukewarm water'
  • se watinı iś liau 'the water is lukewarm'
  • māra bāce 'big books'
  • se bāce ir māra 'the books are big'

The comparative and superlatives are formed by the suffixes -ier and -sd: suōt, suōtier, suōtsd 'sweet, sweeter, sweetest'.

There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.

Meaning Positive Comparative Superlative
"good" gād /kɑː²/ batier /patjə(ɹ)/ basd /paht¹/
"bad" druk /tʂʊʔ¹/ wirsier /ɥœːɕə(ɹ)/ wirsd /ɥœːht¹/
"many" miciel /mɪt͡ɕəɫ/ mēr /mɜː(ɹ)¹/ mēsd /mɤːht¹/

Verbs

Verbs have three paradigms: athematic stems, thematic a-stems and thematic i-stems.

Most verbs have three principal parts: the present stem (remove the -n from the infinitive), the past stem and the past participle. The past subjunctive always uses the past participle stem.

Thematic verbs

-en verbs

This is the most productive class of verbs.

maken 'to make'
tense jak/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present make [maʔ²] maked [maʔkʰə(ɹ)]
past indicative makedie [maʔkʰɪj] makedie [maʔkʰɪj]
imperative - mace! [maʔ²]
present participle makend [maʔkʰənʔ]
past participle makedie [maʔkʰɪj]

Also: liaufen [ljaʊfən] 'love', lirnen [ljɛːnən] 'learn'

-ien verbs
rēcen 'to reach'
tense jak/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present rēce [ɹɤːʔtʃ²] rēced [ɹɤːʔtʃʰə(ɹ)]
past indicative rēcedie [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj] rēcedie [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj]
imperative - rēce! [ɹɤːʔtʃ²]
present participle rēcend [ɹɤːʔtʃʰənʔ]
past participle rēcedie [ɹɤːʔtʃʰɪj]

Also: arbēdien 'work'; haurien 'hear'; lērien 'teach'; sagien 'say'; ertalien 'tell, recount'; ranien 'run (transitive), execute, set into motion'

Verbs like e.g. bringin, bragtie, bragt 'bring'; bugin, bugtie, bugt 'buy'; zancin, zagtie, zagt - 'think' form a small subclass of the -in verbs.

Athematic verbs

Weak
Strong class 1
bīten 'to bite'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present bīte /piːʔ²/ bīted /piːʔə(ɹ)/
past indicative bēt /pɤːʔ¹/ bēt /pɤːʔ¹/
past subjunctive biti /pɪʔɪ/ biti /pɪʔɪ/
imperative - bīt! /piːʔ²/
present participle bītend /piːʔənʔ/
past participle biten /pɪʔən/

Also: sgīnen, sgēn, sginen 'shine', drīfen, drēf, drifen 'drive', clīfen, clēf, clifen 'stick, cling', rīten, rēt, riten 'write'

Strong class 2
fliaugen 'to fly, flee'
tense jak/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present fliauge /tʃaʊs²/ fliauged /tʃaʊsə(ɹ)/
past indicative flaug /ˈkʰaʊs¹/ flaug /ˈkʰaʊs¹/
past subjunctive flugi /ˈkʰʊɹɪ/ flugi /ˈkʰʊɹɪ/
imperative - fliaug! /tʃaʊs²/
present participle fliaugend / /tʃaʊsənʔ/
past participle flugen /ˈkʰʊɹən/

Also: biauden, baud, buden 'offer, bid', biaugen, baug, bugen 'bow', fliaugen, , flugen 'fly', fliawen, flau, fluwen 'flee, escape', friausen, fraus, fruren 'freeze'

Strong class 3
binden 'to tie, to bind'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present bindie bindied
past indicative band band
past subjunctive bundi bundi
imperative - bind!
present participle bindend
past participle bunden

Also: bieginen, biegan, biegunen 'begin'; drincen, dranc, druncen 'drink'; finzen, fanz, funzen 'find'; grinden, grand, grunden 'grind'; rinen, ran, runen 'run'; sbringen, sbrang, sbrungen 'burst, explode'; simben, samb, sumben 'sing'; wierpen, warp, wurpen 'throw'; źrimben, zramb, zrumben 'press, force, push through'

Strong class 4

In Ufirlandisg, Proto-Germanic class 3b strong verbs have merged with class 4 strong verbs.

biaren 'to carry'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present biarie biaried
past indicative bar bar
past subjunctive buri buri
imperative - biar!
present participle biarend
past participle buren

Also: briaken, brak, bruken 'break', niamen, nam, numen 'take', piamen, pam, pumen 'come', sbriaken, sbrak, sbruken 'speak', sdialen, sdal, sdulen 'steal', hialpen, halp, hulpen 'help', driasg, drasg, drusgen 'thresh', sdiarf, sdarf, sdurfen 'die'

Strong class 5
giafen 'to give'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present giafie giafied
past indicative gaf gaf
past subjunctive giafi giafi
imperative - giaf!
present participle giafend
past participle giafen

Also: driapen, drap, driapen 'hit, meet', fergiaten, fergat, fergiaten 'forget', liasen, las, liaren 'read', siawen, saw, siawen 'see'. There are also the j-present verbs bidin, bad, biaden 'beg, pray', ligin, lag, liagen 'lie'

Strong class 6
grafen 'to dig'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present grafie grafied
past indicative grāf grāf
past subjunctive grafi grafi
imperative - graf!
present participle grafend
past participle grafen

Also: faren, fār, faren 'spread', slagen, slāg, slagen 'strike', sdanden, sdānd, sdanden 'stand', wagsen, wāgs, wagsen 'grow', wasgen, wāsg, wasgen 'wash', jaten, jāt, jaten 'eat' (reclassified from class 5)

Strong class 7

hēten, hīt, hīten - to be called

laupen, liaup, liaupen - to jump, leap

sdauten, sdiaut, sdiauten - to bump, collide, crash

hald, hiald, hialden - to hold

liāten, līt, liāten - to let

siān, siādie, siād - to sow (regularized)

Preterite-present verbs

witen 'to know'
witen 'to know'
tense jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā
present indicative wōt
present subjunctive witi
past indicative wisdie
past subjunctive wisdi
imperative wit!
present participle witend
past participle wisd
cunen 'can, be able to'
cunen 'can'
tense jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā
present indicative can
present subjunctive cuni
past indicative cundie
past subjunctive cundi

Similarly sgulen 'should', zurfen 'have to'.

magen 'may'

The present forms of this verb are derived from PGmc *maganą (~ Eng. may, might), and the past forms are from PGmc *mōtaną (~ Eng. must).

magen 'may'
tense jac/jūr/ir/sī/it/sum/niā
present indicative mag
present subjunctive magi
past indicative māsdie
past subjunctive māsdi

Other irregular verbs

wilen 'want to, will'
wilen 'want to, will'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present indicative wī wīd
present subjunctive wili wilid
past indicative wildie wildie
past subjunctive wildi wildi
biaun 'be'
biaun 'to be'
tense jac jūr ir/sī/it sum niā
present indicative im ired/ir iś irem/ir ir
present subjunctive sije sijed sijed sijed sije
past indicative was wiēra was wiēra wiēra
past subjunctive wiēri wiēri wiēri wiēri wiēri
imperative - biau! - - -
present participle wiesend
past participle wiēren
han 'have (auxiliary)'
han 'to have (auxiliary)'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present indicative ha had
present subjunctive hafi hafid
past indicative hadie hadie
past subjunctive hadi hadi
imperative - ha!
present participle hafind
past participle had
dān 'do'
dān 'to do'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present dā dād
past indicative diadie diadie
past subjunctive diadi diadi
imperative - dā!
present participle dānd
past participle dān
gān 'go'
gān 'to go'
tense jac/niā jūr/ir/sī/it/sum
present indicative gā gād
past indicative giang giang
past subjunctive giangi giangi
imperative - gā!
present participle gānd
past participle giangen

Also: fān - to get, to obtain

Derivational morphology

  • and-: 'de-, dis-'
  • bie-: "be-", forms applicatives
    • biecrīten 'complain about' < crīten 'complain'
    • bierīten 'describe' < rīten 'write'
    • biesingen 'praise' < singen 'sing'
  • -bier: '-able'
    • jatebier 'edible' < jaten 'to eat'
  • er-: telic, ~ German er-
  • fer-: "for-"
    • ferwundran 'surprise, amaze' < wunder 'wonder, miracle'
  • fur-: "fore-"
  • -ful: "-ful"
  • ge-
    • gebiaren 'give birth' < biaren 'bear, carry'
  • -hēd: -ness, -hood
  • -ig: forms adjectives from nouns
  • -laus: "-less"
  • -ling: "-ling"
  • -lik: "-ly"; forms adjectives from nouns
    • wurdlik 'literal' < wurd 'word'
  • mis-: "mis-"
  • -nes: forms nouns from verbs
  • -sam: "-some"
  • un-: "un-" (negation or opposite)
    • unrāwa 'unrest, unease'
  • -unga: forms nouns from verbs
    • hētiunga 'heating' < hētin 'to heat'

Prepositions

Like in German, prepositions govern certain defined cases and change meaning based on the case of the noun. Prepositions may govern the nominative (accusative for pronouns) or the genitive (dative for pronouns). Ordinals are formed with the suffix -za.

  • an = (+ acc) onto; (+ dat) on
  • fur = (+ acc) for; (+ dat) before
  • gagin = (+ acc) against
  • in = (+ acc) into; (+ dat) in
  • mid́ = (+ dat) with
  • ta = (+ dat) to, towards
  • tuigs (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) between
  • ufir = (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) across, over
  • undier = (+ acc/dat for movement resp. location) under, between, among
  • wizer = (+ acc) at, next to, by
  • zank = (+ dat) thanks to

Numbers

Base-120 system.

  • 1: ēn /ɤːn/ (ordinal ērsd)
  • 2: tuō /tʰwɔː/ (ordinal anzier)
  • 3: zrī /tsrʲiː/
  • 4: fiur /fʲʊr/
  • 5: finf /fʲinf/
  • 6: siags /ʃaks/
  • 7: süef /ʃɥœf/
  • 8: agta /ˈaːktʰa/
  • 9: niaun /nʲaun/
  • 10: tiaun /tʲʰaun/
  • 11: ēnlif
  • 12: tuōlif
  • 13: zrītiun
  • 14: fiurtiun
  • 15: finftiun
  • 16: siagstiun
  • 17: süeftiun
  • 18: agtiun
  • 19: niauntiun
  • 20: tuōntig
  • 30: zrītig
  • 40: fiurtig
  • 50: finftig
  • 60: siagstig
  • 70: süeftig
  • 80: agtig
  • 90: niauntig
  • 100: tiauntig
  • 110: ēnliftig
  • 120: hundrad
  • 14400: zūsand́

Syntax

Constituent order

Word order is SVO, and VO in imperatives. Questions may use a question particle jez at the end, but this is optional.

Sī iś mīn lēraŕ.
She is my teacher.
Giasdern jac giang bugin ubati.
Yesterday I went to buy fruit.
Nie wōt jūr zat jez?
Don't you know that?
Jat sīn krūtsakar!
Eat your vegetables!

Verbs are negated with nie placed before the verb:

Jac nie fersdanda huat sagid jūr.
I don't understand what you're saying.

Noun phrase

Both adjectives and genitives follow nouns.

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

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Zis sbriakmāl was ēns furrigtid.
/tɕɪs sprʲaʔmɑːɫ was ɤ̃ːs foːrɪjtɪj/
This language was once featured.
Zank zias miāt af fullikhēt, fīnhēt auk brūklikhēt, sum sdamnidie it ta furrigtin.
/tsãʔ tɕəs mjɑːʔ əʊ fʊlɪʔɤːʔ, fɪ̃jxɤːʔ aʊʔ bɹʊuʔlɪʔɤːʔ sʊŋ stamnɪj ɪʔ tə foːrɪjtɪŋ/
Thanks to its level of quality, plausibility and usage features, it has been voted as featured.

Phrasebook

  • Gād murgen! [kaːt ˈmʊrkɨn] - Good morning!
  • Gād dag! [kaːt tak] - Hello! Good day!
  • Gād üēfend! [kaːt ˈɥœːfɨnt] - Good evening!
  • Gād nātie! [kaːt ˈnaːtʰʲɛ] - Good night!
  • Wialkumen! [ˈɥœɫkʰʊmɨn] - Welcome!
  • Hēta jac... [ˈhɤːtʰa jak...] - My name is...
  • Zanke! [tsaŋkʰə] - Thank you!
  • Mir/Unś iś rǖ. [mʲɪr/ʊnʃ ɪʃ rʲyː] - I'm/We're sorry.
  • Nie sbriaka jac Ufirlandisg. - I don't speak Ufirlandisg.

Other resources

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