TolsienO

Phonology

Consonants

		Bilabial		Labio-dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Glottal
Nasal		m				n						ɲ		ŋ
Plosive		p b				t̚ tʰ t d								k g
Fricative		ɸ β		f v		θ ð		s z		ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ						χ ʁ		h
Approximant												j		w
Flap								(ɾ)
Lateral approx.						l
Prenasalized occlusive														(ᵑg)

Vowels

		Front		Central		Back
Close		i y				u
Close-mid		e (ø)				o
Open-mid		(ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃				ɔ ɔ̃
Open				ä		ɑ̃

Notes :

It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.

Orthography

Alphabet

Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (E, e ; Ê, ê ;)
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ)
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/

Spelling rules

The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <i> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :

i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/

i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns have gender, number, and (most likely) definiteness (definite and indefinite articles).

Gender

There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.

Number

There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.

Verbs

There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.

Indicative Mood

The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.

Present

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-a /a/	-	-a /a/
2SG	-ac /as/	-c /s/	-ac /as/
3SG	-at /at/	-t /t/	-at /at/
1PL	-amw /amu/	-m /t/	-mwc /mus/
2PL	-atc /ats/	-tc /m/	-tic /tis/
3PL	-an /an/	-n /n/	-na /na/
2POL	-e /e/	-e /e/	-e /e/

Imperfect past

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-ta /ta/	-t /t/	-ta /ta/
2SG	-tac /tas/	-tc /ts/	-tac /tas/
3SG	-tat /tat/	-ŧ /t̚/	-tat /tat/
1PL	-tamw /tamu/	-tm /tm/	-tamo /tamo/
2PL	-tatc /tats/	-ŧc /t̚s/	-tati /tati/
3PL	-tan /tan/	-tn /tn/	-tana /tana/
2POL	-te /te/	-te /te/	-te /te/

The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.

Perfect past

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-fa /fa/	-f /f/	-fa /fa/
2SG	-fac /fas/	-fc /fs/	-fac /fas/
3SG	-fat /fat/	-ft /ft/	-fat /fat/
1PL	-famw /famu/	-fmw /fmu/	-famo /famo/
2PL	-fatc /fats/	-ftc /fts/	-fati /fati/
3PL	-fan /fan/	-fn /fn/	-fana /fana/
2POL	-fe /fe/	-fe /fe/	-fe /fe/

The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.

Future

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-ra /ʁa/	-r /ʁ/	-ra /ʁa/
2SG	-rac /ʁas/	-rc /ʁs/	-rac /ʁas/
3SG	-rat /ʁat/	-rt /ʁt/	-rat /ʁat/
1PL	-ramw /ʁamu/	-rm /ʁm/	-ramo /ʁamo/
2PL	-ratc /ʁats/	-rtc /ʁts/	-rati /ʁati/
3PL	-ran /ʁan/	-rn /ʁn/	-rana /ʁana/
2POL	-re /ʁe/	-re /ʁe/	-re /ʁe/

Absolute (gnomic)

The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.

Absolute

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-yh /joh/	-yh /joh/	-y /jo/
2SG	-ys /joθ/	-ys /joθ/	-yc /jos/
3SG	-yŧ /jot̚/	-yŧ /jot̚/	-yt /jot/
1PL	-yƥ /joɸ/	-yƥ /joɸ/	-yf /jof/
2PL	-yƶ̆1 /joʒ/	-yƶ̆1 /joʒ/	-yz /joz/
3PL	-yƿ /jowi/	-yƿ /jowi/	-yn /jon/
2POL	-yƶ /joð/	-yƶ /joð/	-yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?)

¹In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.

Conditional

The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.

Present

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-o /o/	-o /o/	-o /o/
2SG	-oc /ɔs/	-oc /ɔs/	-oc /ɔs/
3SG	-ot /ɔt/	-ot /ɔt/	-ot /ɔt/
1PL	-omw /omu/	-omwc /omus/	-omwc /omus/
2PL	-otc /ɔts/	-otic /otis/	-otic /otis/
3PL	-on /ɔn/	-ona /ona/	-ona /ona/
2POL	-o͠e /we/	-o͠e /we/	-o͠e /we/

Subjunctive

The subjunctive is used in dependent clauses.

Present

Person	Group A	Group B	Group C
1SG	-ko /ko/	-ko /ko/	-ko /ko/
2SG	-koc /kɔs/	-kc /ks/	-koc /kɔs/
3SG	-kot /kɔt/	-kt /kt/	-kot /kɔt/
1PL	-komw /komu/	-km /km/	-komwc /komus/
2PL	-kotc /kɔts/	-ktc /kts/	-kotic /kotis/
3PL	-kon /kɔn/	-kn /kn/	-kona /kona/
2POL	-ke /ke/	-ke /ke/	-ke /ke/

Participles

Participles

	Group A	Group B	Group C
Present	-adz /adz/	-dz /dz/	-ant /ant/
Past	-i /i/	-~i1 /j/	-te /te/

¹In the original description, the ending was given as -j. But the letter <J j> is not used in the alphabet, and by analogy with the -i ending of the group A (which corresponds to verbs whose stem ends in a consonant), we can assume this meant the ending for verbs of the group B (whose stem ends in a vowel) should be /j/ (/i/ turning into its corresponding approximant after a vowel). Therefore, the "link" diacritic should be used.

Derivational morphology

TolsienO uses prefixes and suffixes to create new words. Here is a non-exhaustive list :

• Prefixes

u- or -ur creates an antonym (mostly used with adjectives).

• Suffixes

-iƀl creates an adjective from a verb.
-êl (m. sg.) / -al (f. sg.) / -ilc (n. pl.) creates an adjective from a noun.
-g creates a noun denoting an instrument, from another noun.
-or (m. sg.) / -ora (f. sg.) creates an agentive noun, from another noun.

Syntax

Constituent order

Declarative sentences

There are two main constituant orders in declarative sentences : SVO and VSO. The former is mostly used in literature, and the verb is then conjugated according to its subject. But the VSO order is more common in everyday speech and then the verb is conjugated in the third person and only agrees in number with its subject (the 3SG verbal ending is used when the subject is 1SG, 2SG or 3SG, and the 3PL ending is used when the subject is 1PL, 2PL or 3PL).

Questions

Questions are made by inversing verb and subject. However, this inversion is relative to the underlying constituent order in the corresponding declarative sentence :

(1) If the underlying order is VSO (more common), then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Subject + Verb (in the third person)
(2) If it is SVO , then the corresponding question is : (question word) + Verb (agreeing in person with its subject) + Subject.

Questions usually have a rising intonation.

Noun phrase

• Adjectives usually follow the noun they qualify.

• Possession (genitive) can be expressed with two main constructions :

(1) "Possessor" + possessive adjective (agreeing with the possessor) + "possessed"
(2) "Possessed" + "possessor-suffix" where the suffix is a left over from a previous genitive case.

Verb phrase

Adverbs usually follow the verb they qualify.