User:Frrurtu/Sandbox2: Difference between revisions

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==History==
==History==
:''See also: [[Proto-Rttirrian]] and [[Proto-North-Rttirrian]]''
* As a result of collapsing of the different gendered endings for case inflections, the case system became significantly more [[w:agglutination|agglutinative]], requiring the gender and case suffixes to be attached to the noun separately.
Zoki is a member of the Rttirrian language family, whose languages are spoken across the nation of [[Verse:Rttirria|Rttirria]] as well as in adjoining areas of Myanmar and Thailand. It is part of the North Rttirrian branch of the family; the dialects of [[Proto-North-Rttirrian]] that would become Rttirri split off from those that would become other languages around the 2rd to 4th century CE, probably in central Myanmar.
 
Zoki is considered one of the most [[w:conservative (language)|innovative]] Rttirrian languages, having undergone considerable changes in grammar and phonology over the millennia. The main changes from Proto-North-Rttirrian to Gaju are summarized here:
 
* The two verb forms (roughly equivalent to transitive and intransitive) evolved into seven (all of which can be transitive or intransitive in certain contexts), aided by a rigorous pattern of ablaut of verb prefixes, some reduplication, and reappropriation of the Old Zoki word ''shikh'' ("to do") into a verbal affix.
:* The verb-pattern system also became more accepting of loaned morphemes, which inflected regularly (cf. Arabic ''kuub'' "cup", ''akwaab'' "cups").
:* Because of the system's growing flexibility, auxiliary verbs began to be used less.
* The verb-affixation system was hugely simplified, changing from one that encoded person, number, and tense to a very vestigial system.
* The possessive, plural, and diminutive noun affixes became separate clitic-like words.
* Many of the pronouns were simplified to some degree.
* A chain shift took place from the retroflex series of consonants, to the alveolar series, to a new dental series.
* In verbs and gerunds, word-initial */β/ became a new /w/.
* Also in verbs and gerunds, but not in most loanwords, intervocalic and final */j/ became /d͡ʒ/. This resulted in a phonemic split.
* Outside verbs and gerunds, */d/ palatalized to /d͡ʒ/ before front vowels.
* In sequences involving /j/ and /w/, vowels were lengthened; they were also lengthened in certain positions verbs to more clearly distinguish between the various verb forms.
* Outside verbs and gerunds, in coda position, there was a chain shift from /k/ to /g/ to a new /ŋ/, which became phonemic when Zoki imported numerous words containing /ŋ/ from other languages in Southeast Asia.
* In some dialects of late Old Zoki, the voiced and voiceless stops (velar, alveolar, and bilabial) chain-shifted universally to voiceless and voiceless aspirated under areal influence, e.g. */b/ > /p/ > /pʰ/. Dialect mixing caused these dialects to re-import the more conservative pronunciations in certain consonantal roots, but not others, and these hybrid pronunciations then spread, leading to new phonemic distinctions between all three series of stops.
* The dental stop series disappeared:
:*/n̪/ palatalized to /ɲ/.
:*/t̪/ and /d̪/ palatalized and affricated to /tɕ/ and /dʑ/.
:*/t̪ʰ/ and /d̪ʰ/ fricativized to /θ/ and /ð/.
* /d͡ʒ/ merged into this new /dʑ/.
* Initial /x/ became /h/, while coda /x/ became a re-introduced coda /k/.
* A sweeping vowel shift caused the following effects:
:* /iː/, /uː/, /eː/, and a /oː/ lost their length but took a schwa offglide.
:* /ɔː/ lowered and unrounded to /ɑ/, lost its length, and took a schwa offglide, although many speakers now pronounce it simply as /ɑ/.
:* /i/ and /e/ chain-shifted to /e/ and /ɛ/. Likewise, /u/, /o/, and /ɔ/ became /o/, /ɔ/, and /ɑ/.
:* /ä/ raised to /ə/.
* /äː/ lost its length and fronted to /a/.
* In onset, /ɸ/ and /β/ labiodentalized to /f/ and /v/; elsewhere, they caused various effects on the vowels:
:* /iː/ and /uː/ avoided the expected diphthongization, leading to phonemic splits between /i/ and /iə/ and between /u/ and /uə/.
:* However, every other vowel became newly diphthongized with a schwa offglide.
* Some old /iːCV/ and /uːCV/ sequences simplified to /i/ and /u/.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Zoki possesses the following consonant phonemes:
Proto-Owina possessed the following consonants:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!  |
!  |Labial
!  |Dental
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal-<br>alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Glottal
|-
|-
! Nasal
! colspan="2" |
| '''m''' /m/
!  Labial
!  Alveolar
!  Palato-<br>alveolar
!  Velar
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| *'''m''' /m/
| *'''n''' /n/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plosive
! Voiceless
| *'''p''' /p/
| *'''t''' /t/
|
| *'''k''' /k/
|-
! Voiced
|
| *'''d''' /d/
|
| *'''g''' /g/
|-
! Aspirated
| *'''ph''' /pʰ/
| *'''th''' /tʰ/
|
|
| '''n''' /n/
| *'''kh''' /kʰ/
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
! Voiceless
| *'''f''' /f/
| *'''s''' /s/
| *'''sh''' /ʃ/
|  
|  
| '''ny''' /ɳ/
|-
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
! Voiced
| *'''v''' /v/
|
| *'''j''' /ʒ/
|
|
|-
|-
! Plosive
! rowspan="3" | Affricate
| '''p''' /p/<br>'''b''' /b/<br>'''pp''' /pʰ/
! Voiced
|  
|
| '''t''' /t/<br>'''d''' /d/<br>'''tt''' /tʰ/
|  
|
|
| '''k''' /k/<br>'''g''' /g/<br>'''kk''' /kʰ/
| *'''dj''' /d͡ʒ/
|
|
|-
|-
! Fricative
! Voiceless
| '''f''' /f/<br>'''v''' /v/
|
| '''th''' /θ/<br>'''dh''' /ð/
| '''s''' /s/<br>'''z''' /z/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br>'''zh''' /ʒ/
|
|
| *'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/
|
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Aspirated
|
|
|
| *'''cch''' /t͡ʃʰ/
|
|
|  
|-
| '''ch''' /tɕ/<br>'''j''' /dʑ/
! colspan="2" | Approximant
|
| *'''w''' /w/
| *'''l''' /l/
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Approximant
! colspan="2" | Flap/Trill
| '''w''' /w/
|
|
| '''l''' /l/<br>'''r''' /ɹ/
| *'''r''' /r/
|
|
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
|
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! High
! High
| '''i''' /i/<br>'''ì''' /iə/
| *'''i''' /i/
|
| *'''u''' /ʉ/
| '''u''' /u/<br>'''ù''' /uə/
|
|-
|-
! Mid-high
! Mid-high
| '''é''' /e/<br>'''è''' /eə/
| *'''e''' /e/
|
|  
| '''ó''' /o/<br>'''ò''' /oə/
| *'''o''' /o/
|-
|-
! Mid
! Mid
|
|
| '''û''' /ə/  
| *'''y''' /ə/
|
|
|-
|-
! Low-mid
! Mid-low
| '''e''' /ɛ/
|
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/
|  
| *'''ø''' /ɔ/
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| '''a''' /a/<br>('''ai''' /ai/)<br>('''au''' /au/)
|
|
| '''â''' /ɑ/<br>('''ấ''' /ɑə/)
| *'''a''' /a/
|
|}
|}
* The distinction between /ɑ/ and /ɑə/ is a remnant of the historical vowel length distinction in [[Old Zoki]]; vowel shifts since the Old Zoki period have diphthongized most instances of the historical long vowels, while the short vowels have altered in quality. However, in the case of short and long historical */ɔ/, most speakers have merged them to /ɑ/; the diphthongization of historical long */ɔ/ to /ɑə/ is now considered a dying feature.
* The diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ do not occur in native Zoki words except for a few interjections and onomatopoeic terms, such as ''hai'' ("haha") and ''hau'' ("ouch"). They occur in some loanwords, but speakers, especially less educated ones, often pronounce them variously as bisyllabic ''a-i'' and ''a-u'', as monophthongal ''a'', or as monophthongal ''i'' and ''u''.


==Grammar==
==Grammar==
As part of the [[w:Mainland Southeast Asian linguistic area|Southeast Asian sprachbund]], Zoki has lost most of the complex affixational morphology of [[Proto-Rttirrian]] and become highly [[w:analytic language|analytic]]. However, it retains parts of the (already simplified) affixational system of [[Old Zoki]]. Nevertheless, Zoki is no longer considered pro-drop, for example, as several verbal conjugation paradigms have merged together; pronouns are now generally used alongside verbs, except in some informal speech where they may be dropped. Similar processes have occurred in English and French.
===Pronouns===
 
The following pronouns were used:
===Nouns===
The following pronouns are used:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="3" |
!rowspan="4" |
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="8" | 3rd
|-
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
! rowspan="2" | Sing.
! rowspan="2" | Pl.
! colspan="4" | Sing.
! colspan="4" | Pl.
|-
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
! Masc.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
! Nominative
| ''*shig''
| ''*e''
| ''*far''
| ''*ja''
| ''*su''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tud''
| ''*sir''
| ''*ris''
| ''*tuj''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tur''
| ''*tiraj''
| ''*rini''
|-
! Accusative
| ''*amí''
| ''*esmí''
| ''*fí''
| ''*vosí''
| ''*tum''
| ''*tir''
| ''*rim''
| ''*tuns''
| ''*tires''
| ''*rines''
|-
! Genitive
| ''*míne''
| ''*eso''
| ''*tíve''
| ''*shøso''
| colspan="2" | ''*søfó''
| ''*iser''
| ''*rincho''
| colspan="2" | ''*tisom''
| ''*tirom''
| ''*rinom''
|-
! Dative
| ''*mísho''
| ''*esmej''
| ''*phájo''
| ''*fasmej''
| colspan="2" | ''*smój''
| ''*rij''
| ''*rinej''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujmø''
| ''*timø''
| rowspan="2" | ''*rimos''
|-
! Ablative
| ''*míd''
| ''*esmed''
| ''*fíd''
| ''*fasmed''
| colspan="3" | ''*smód''
| ''*rind''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujos''
| ''*turos''
|-
! Locative
| rowspan="2" | ''*muáj''
| ''*esmaj''
| rowspan="2" | ''*tuáj''
| ''*fasmaj''
| colspan="2" | ''*smaj''
| ''*raj''
| ''*rinch''
| colspan="2" | ''*chø''
| ''*tichø''
| ''*rinchø''
|-
! Instrumental
| ''*esmáj''
| ''*fasmo''
| colspan="3" | ''*tuj''
| ''*rinar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tushphaj''
| ''*tiphaj''
| ''*rinash''
|-
! Comitative
| ''*amík''
| ''*esmík''
| ''*fík''
| ''*vosík''
| ''*tyrom''
| colspan="2" | ''*turom''
| ''*rimom''
| ''*tunsom''
| ''*turom''
| ''*tirsom''
| ''*rinsom''
|-
! Illative
| ''*míshor''
| ''*esmen''
| ''*phájor''
| ''*fasmen''
| colspan="2" | ''*smósh''
| ''*shin''
| ''*rinchar''
| colspan="2" | ''*tujman''
| ''*turon''
| ''*rinchen''
|}
 
====Case declension====
Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="3" |
|-
! colspan="4" | Singular
! colspan="4" | Plural
|-
|-
! Sing.
! Masc.
! Pl.
! Neut.
! Sing.
! Fem.
! Pl.
! Them.
! Sing.
! Masc.
! Pl.
! Neut.
! Fem.
! Them.
|-
|-
! Nominative<br>(emphatic)
! Nominative
| ''nûg''
| ''*-(a)m''
| ''mo''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| ''a''
| ''*-(a)s''
| ''sûg''
| ''*-(a)sh''
| ''tù''
| ''*-∅/-y''
| ''âk''
| rowspan="2" | ''*-(a)r''
| ''*-(y)sh''
| ''*-∅/-y''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| ''né''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)m''
| ''me''
| ''*-(e)s''
| ''ké''
| colspan="2" | ''*-(e)s''
| ''se''
|-
| ''yo''
! Genitive (inalienable)
| ''gi''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)s''
| colspan="4" | ''*-(s)om''
|-
! Genitive (alienable)
| colspan="4" | ''*-sho''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shom''
|-
! Dative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(y)j''
| colspan="4" | ''*-mos''
|-
! Ablative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)d''
| colspan="4" | ''*-dom''
|-
! Adessive
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)ej''
| colspan="4" | ''*-sø''
|-
! Inessive
| colspan="4" | ''*-(j)aj''
| colspan="4" | ''*-jom''
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="4" | ''*-(a)r''
| colspan="4" | ''*-phaj''
|-
! Comitative
| colspan="4" | ''*-(i)k''
| colspan="4" | ''*-kom''
|-
|-
! Possessive
! Illative
| ''nû''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shar''
| ''mé''
| colspan="4" | ''*-shen''
| ''û''
| ''sû''
| ''â''
| ''e''
|}
|}


Two particles may come after the entire noun phrase. One is the non-obligatory plural particle ''mi''; the other is the diminutive ''ûzh''. When multiple diminutive objects are being referred to, the particles may come in either order, although ''mi ûzh'' is more typical.
Except for the plural in the accusative, cases were "stacked" on top of the nominative gender endings to explicitly indicate both gender, number, and case.
 
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-sh-'''as'''''
:chick-THEM.SG-GEN.INAL.SG
:the chick's


===Verbs===
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>''pipi-∅-'''som'''
Verbs conjugate, vestigially, for person and number of the subject:
:chick-THEM.PL-GEN.INAL.PL
:the chicks'


===Verb phrases===
====Person/number conjugation====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="3" |
!rowspan="4" |
|-
|-
!colspan="6" | Athematic
!colspan="6" | Thematic
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
!colspan="2" | 3rd
|-
|-
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Sing.
! Sing.
! Pl.
! Pl.
Line 200: Line 366:
|-
|-
!Past
!Past
| ''o-''
| ''*-ø''
| ''o-''
| ''*-ømí''
| —
| ''*-as''
| —
| ''*-etí''
| —
| ''*-a''
| ''o-''
| ''*-and''
| ''*-om''
| ''*-ome''
| ''*-es''
| ''*-ete''
| ''*-ed''
| ''*-ond''
|-
|-
!Present
!Present
| —
| ''*-ma''
| —
| ''*-mos''
| —
| ''*-sa''
| —
| ''*-te''
| —
| ''*-ta''
| ''e-''
| ''*-ach''
|-
| ''*-o''
!Future
| ''*-om''
| —
| ''*-ash''
| —
| ''*-et''
| —
| ''*-omo''
| ''ji-''
| ''*-och''
| —
| ''ji-''
|}
|}
However, consonantal verb roots can fit a large number of verb patterns, each of which puts a different nuance on the action.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
|-
!colspan="6"|Forms
!colspan="2"|Examples
|-
!Form
!Past
!Present
!Future
!Gerund
!Meaning
!Biliteral roots, e.g. ''k-b'' (to stop)
!Triliteral roots, e.g. ''ṭ-j-ṇ'' (to bother)
|-
! I
| '''''shò'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''shè'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''shè'''1'''e'''2('''e'''3)''
| '''''nó'''1'''o'''2('''o'''3)''
| to do something<br>skillfully or carefully
|
|
|-
! II
| ''1'''ò'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''e'''2('''a'''3)''
| to undergo a process<br>emphatically or suddenly
| ''kēb'' – he stops suddenly
| ''ṭējeṇ'' – he goes crazy
|-
! III
| ''1'''u'''2'''ò'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''i'''2'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''i'''2'''è'''2('''e'''3)''
| ''1'''e'''2'''e'''2('''a'''3)''
| to undergo a process<br>repeatedly and quickly
| ''kēb'' – he stops suddenly
| ''ṭējeṇ'' – he goes crazy
|-
! IV
| ''1'''a'''2('''û'''3)''
| ''1'''a'''2('''û'''3)''
| ''1'''e'''2('''é'''3)''
| ''1'''â'''2('''â'''3)''
| to undergo a process<br>weakly or gradually
| ''kāb'' – he slows to a halt
| ''ṭājaṇ'' – he hesitates
|-
! V
| ''1'''é'''2'''ò'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''e'''(3'''a''')''
| to act on someone/something<br>emphatically or suddenly
| ''kibē'' – he causes to stop suddenly
| ''ṭijēṇe'' – he completely disrupts
|-
! VI
| ''1'''i'''2'''é'''2'''ò'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''i'''2'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''i'''2'''é'''2'''è'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''i'''2'''é'''2'''e'''(3'''a''')''
| to act on someone/something<br>repeatedly and quickly
| ''kibē'' – he causes to stop suddenly
| ''ṭijēṇe'' – he completely disrupts
|-
! VII
| ''1'''é'''2'''a'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''a'''(3'''û''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''ì'''(3'''é''')''
| ''1'''é'''2'''â'''(3'''â''')''
| to act on someone/something<br>weakly or gradually
| ''kibā'' – he drags to a halt
| ''ṭijāṇa'' – he annoys
|}
The present tense of each verb form is syncretic with either the past or the future tense. This was also the case in Old Zoki, but in that stage of the language, the person/number affixes on the verb encoded unambiguous tense information, which is no longer the case in Modern Zoki. As a result, speakers often use ''mó'' (a truncation of ''mómó'', lit. "now", cognate to Rttirri ''mumu'') to specify that an action is taking place in the present. However, this word may come anywhere in the sentence, though it is found most frequently after the verb.
:<nowiki></nowiki>Tù né ttéjanyû.
:3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V
:He was/is annoying me.
:<nowiki></nowiki>Tù né ttéjanyû '''mó'''.
:3SG.NOM 1SG.ACC annoy.Form_V now
:He is annoying me.

Latest revision as of 02:25, 13 June 2017

History

  • As a result of collapsing of the different gendered endings for case inflections, the case system became significantly more agglutinative, requiring the gender and case suffixes to be attached to the noun separately.

Phonology

Consonants

Proto-Owina possessed the following consonants:

Labial Alveolar Palato-
alveolar 		Velar
Nasal *m /m/ *n /n/
Plosive Voiceless *p /p/ *t /t/ *k /k/
Voiced *d /d/ *g /g/
Aspirated *ph /pʰ/ *th /tʰ/ *kh /kʰ/
Fricative Voiceless *f /f/ *s /s/ *sh /ʃ/
Voiced *v /v/ *j /ʒ/
Affricate Voiced *dj /d͡ʒ/
Voiceless *ch /t͡ʃ/
Aspirated *cch /t͡ʃʰ/
Approximant *w /w/ *l /l/
Flap/Trill *r /r/

Vowels

The following vowel phonemes are used:

Front Central Back
High *i /i/ *u /ʉ/
Mid-high *e /e/ *o /o/
Mid *y /ə/
Mid-low *ø /ɔ/
Low *a /a/

Grammar

Pronouns

The following pronouns were used:

1st 2nd 3rd
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Masc. Neut. Fem. Them. Masc. Neut. Fem. Them.
Nominative *shig *e *far *ja *su *tud *sir *ris *tuj *tur *tiraj *rini
Accusative *amí *esmí *fí *vosí *tum *tir *rim *tuns *tires *rines
Genitive *míne *eso *tíve *shøso *søfó *iser *rincho *tisom *tirom *rinom
Dative *mísho *esmej *phájo *fasmej *smój *rij *rinej *tujmø *timø *rimos
Ablative *míd *esmed *fíd *fasmed *smód *rind *tujos *turos
Locative *muáj *esmaj *tuáj *fasmaj *smaj *raj *rinch *chø *tichø *rinchø
Instrumental *esmáj *fasmo *tuj *rinar *tushphaj *tiphaj *rinash
Comitative *amík *esmík *fík *vosík *tyrom *turom *rimom *tunsom *turom *tirsom *rinsom
Illative *míshor *esmen *phájor *fasmen *smósh *shin *rinchar *tujman *turon *rinchen

Case declension

Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.

Singular Plural
Masc. Neut. Fem. Them. Masc. Neut. Fem. Them.
Nominative *-(a)m *-∅/-y *-(a)s *-(a)sh *-∅/-y *-(a)r *-(y)sh *-∅/-y
Accusative *-(a)m *-(e)s *-(e)s
Genitive (inalienable) *-(a)s *-(s)om
Genitive (alienable) *-sho *-shom
Dative *-(y)j *-mos
Ablative *-(a)d *-dom
Adessive *-(j)ej *-sø
Inessive *-(j)aj *-jom
Instrumental *-(a)r *-phaj
Comitative *-(i)k *-kom
Illative *-shar *-shen

Except for the plural in the accusative, cases were "stacked" on top of the nominative gender endings to explicitly indicate both gender, number, and case.

*pipi-sh-as
chick-THEM.SG-GEN.INAL.SG
the chick's
*pipi-∅-som
chick-THEM.PL-GEN.INAL.PL
the chicks'

Verb phrases

Person/number conjugation

Athematic Thematic
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl.
Past *-ø *-ømí *-as *-etí *-a *-and *-om *-ome *-es *-ete *-ed *-ond
Present *-ma *-mos *-sa *-te *-ta *-ach *-o *-om *-ash *-et *-omo *-och
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