Tevrés: Difference between revisions

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==Nouns==
==Nouns==
===Gender===
Tevrés nouns are divided into three genders, all of which are directly inherited from [[Aeranir]].  These known as the '''temporary''', '''cyclical''', and '''eternal''' genders.  The gender of a noun effects the adjectives and verbs that refer to it.
* '''''{{term|llos}} {{term|gomos}} {{term|rayos}} {{term|quiez}}''''' = The small person is falling. (''temporary'')
* '''''{{term|lla}} {{term|tlana}} {{term|raya}} {{term|quiga}}''''' = The small flower is falling. (''cyclical'')
* '''''{{term|uy}} {{term|prédio}} {{term|rayo}} {{term|qui}}''''' = The small pen is falling. (''eternal'')
The gender of most nouns can be easily inferred from its ending.  Furthermore, there is often overlap between meaning and gender.  Animate living beings and small, breakable objects are often temporary, while abstract concepts, natural processes, or seasonal plants are usually cyclical, and large, durable, inanimate objects are most likely eternal.  However, some nouns have no relation to their gender.  Personal names are either temporary or cyclical; eternal names are reserved for gods.
===Case===
A regular noun in Tevrés belongs to one of three basic declension classes, a group of nouns with similar inflected forms.  These classes are generally typified by the final vowel of the nominative and accusative cases.  Class I is identified by the letter -a, class II by -o, and class III by either an -e or a consonant.  However, there is significant variation within declension classes, and thus these are further divided into subclasses.
There are five Tevrés noun cases, which also apply to adjectives and pronouns and mark a noun's syntactic role in the sentence by means of inflections.  These cases display a high degree of ''syncretism'', or identical endings shared between different cases.  This causes ambiguity, which is usually resolved either by use of articles, prepositions, context, or all of the above.  Some cases, such as the genitive, are used almost exclusively with the definite article; in indefinite constructions, the ablative plus the preposition ''el'' ("from") is used: ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} [[Tevrés#Articles|uy]] {{term|gom}}'' ("the wumbo's cat") versus ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} {{term|el}} {{term|goma}}'' ("a/some wumbo's cat"), alongside ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} {{term|gom}}''.
Tevrés syntax is far less dependant on word order than English because of these cases.  Thus "the dog chases the cat" may be either ''[[Tevrés#Articles|llos]] {{term|çievre}} [[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} {{term|cossa}}'' or ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} [[Tevrés#Articles|llos]] {{term|çievre}} {{term|cossa}}''.
# '''Nominative''' — used when the noun is the subject.  The person or thing acting: the '''cat''' ran: '''''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}}''' {{term|cotllía}}''
# '''Accusative''' — used when the noun is the direct object of the subject.  The person or thing acted upon: the wumbo drank the '''water''': ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|goma}} '''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|ota}}''' {{term|teuta}}''
# '''Dative''' — used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, or otherwise then the noun is effected by the action.  It may also be used for direction or location of movement or action; I gave a cat to my '''friend''': '''''{{term|garino}} {{term|tuyo}}''' {{term|çella}} {{term|teçía}}''; The cat went '''home''': ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} '''{{term|como}}''' {{term|vía}}''
# '''Genitive''' — used when the noun is the possessor of or connected with an object: "the horse of the wumbo", or "the wumbo's horse"; in both instances, the word man would be in the genitive case when it is translated into Tevrés.  It may also indicate the subject of a subjunctive clause; the '''wumbo's''' cat: ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} '''[[Tevrés#Articles|uy]] {{term|gom}}'''''; Avil likes the çat '''Huezco''' bought him: ''{{term|ável}} [[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} '''{{term|huez}}''' {{term|cota}} {{term|meyes}}''
# Ablative — used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent or instrument; the cat ran '''from the dog''': ''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çella}} '''[[Tevrés#Articles|lla]] {{term|çievra}}''' {{term|cotllía}}''
====Class I====
Nouns in class I end in -a in both the nominative and accusative singular cases and are mostly cyclical e.g. ''{{term|llaesta}}'' c.("luck") and ''{{term|pira}}'' c. ("wax"), with a small group of temporary nouns generally referring to occupations, e.g. ''{{term|coxazga}}'' t. ("courier").
Class I.a. represents the dominant paradigm of the declension.  Class I.b. is the result of the regular sound change of final -''o'' to -''e'' after a coronal consonant, merging the dative and genitive, but is otherwise identical to I.a..  Class I.c. is notable for [[w:Epenthesis|epenthesis]], or the introduction of a sound, to the root in the nominative and dative plurals.
The singular genitive and plural accusative froms of ''{{term|frema}}'', ''{{term|frem}}'', also demonstrate the regular [[w:Apocope|apocope]], or dropping, of final unstressed -''e'' after a sonorant or -''d''.
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class I.a.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|salva}}''<br>c. book, tome
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|salva}}
| {{term|salvra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|salve}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|salvo}}
| {{term|salvra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|salve}}
| {{term|salvos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|salva}}
| {{term|salvas}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class I.b.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|ota}}''<br>c. water
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|ota}}
| {{term|otra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|ote}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|ote}}
| {{term|otra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|otos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|ota}}
| {{term|otas}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class I.c.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|frema}}''<br>c. word, speech
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|frema}}
| {{term|frembra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|frem}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|fremo}}
| {{term|frembra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|frem}}
| {{term|fremos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|frema}}
| {{term|fremas}}
|}
====Class II====
Nouns in class II generally end in ''-os''/''-o'' in the nominative singular and ''-e'' in the genitive singular, although these endings are often elided in classes II.b., II.c., and II.d., and are mostly temporary and eternal nouns, e.g. ''{{term|comos}}'' t. ("family"), ''{{term|goros}}'' t. ("crow"), ''{{term|miño}}'' e. ("port"), and ''{{term|jozés}}'' e. ("name, title").
Classes II.b. and II.c. are analogous to classes I.b. and I.c..  Classes II.d. depends from Aeranir temporary nouns ending in ''-er'' in the nominative singular and ''-run'' in the accusative.  Both of these, along with dative singular ''-rō'' and nominative singular ''-rur'' were levelled in Tevrés to ''-re'', causing most cases, especially in the singular, to merge.
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class II.a.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|dievos}}''<br>t. lord, master
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|apo}}''<br>e. year, age
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|dievos}}
| {{term|dievre}}
| rowspan="3" | {{term|apo}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|apon}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|dievo}}
| {{term|dieve}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|dievra}}
| {{term|apra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|dieve}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|dievos}}
| {{term|ape}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|apos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|dieva}}
| {{term|apa}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Noun declension
|+Class I noun endings
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |  
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" | ''cuentos''<br>t. rear, butt
! colspan="2" | temporary
! colspan="2" | ''salva''<br>c. book, work
! colspan="2" | cyclical
! colspan="2" | ''llento''<br>e. country, land
! colspan="2" | eternal
|-
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Singular
Line 326: Line 173:
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Nominative
! scope="row" | Nominative
| ''cuentos''
| ''-os''
| ''cuentor''
| ''-or''
| rowspan="2" | ''salva''
| rowspan="2" | ''-a''
| ''salvar''
| ''-ar''
| rowspan="3" | ''llento''
| rowspan="3" | ''-o''
| rowspan="3" | ''llenton''
| rowspan="3" | ''-on''
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Accusative
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | ''cuento''
| rowspan="2" | ''-o''
| ''cuente''
| ''-e''
| ''salve''
| ''-e''
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Dative
! scope="row" | Dative
| ''cuenton''
| ''-on''
| ''salvo''
| ''-o''
| ''salvan''
| ''-an''
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Genitive
! scope="row" | Genitive
| ''cuente''
| ''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''cuentos''
| rowspan="2" | ''-os''
| ''salve''
| ''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''salvas''
| ''-os''
| ''llente''
| ''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''llentos''
| rowspan="2" | ''-os''
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Ablative
! scope="row" | Ablative
| ''cuenta''
| ''-a''
| ''salva''
| ''-a''
| ''llenta''
| ''-as''
| ''-a''
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class II.c.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|romos}}''<br>t. cow, ox
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|pejo}}''<br>e. city, town
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|romos}}
| {{term|rombre}}
| rowspan="3" | {{term|pejo}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|pejon}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|romo}}
| {{term|rom}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|rombra}}
| {{term|peldra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|rom}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|romos}}
| {{term|pex}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|pejos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|roma}}
| {{term|peja}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class II.d.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|avre}}''<br>t. fish
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|sadre}}''<br>e. dark, black, blot
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="4" | {{term|avre}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|avre}}
| rowspan="4" | {{term|sadre}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|sadron}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|avra}}
| {{term|sadra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| rowspan="2" | {{term|avros}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|sadros}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|avra}}
| {{term|sadra}}
|}
====Class III====
Nouns in class III are the most divergent, and there is great variation in this group and even within its subclasses.  Nouns in Class III may be either temporary, cyclical, or eternal, and it is difficult to discern the gender from the word from alone; they must be memorised individually.  For example, many temporary nouns are identical in both the nominative and accusative singulars.  Words in this category include ''{{term|mientre}}'' t. ("little brother"), ''{{term|salvra}}'' c. ("holy books, cannon"), ''{{term|véral}}'' c. ("sorrow, grief"), and ''{{term|dul}}'' e. ("hill").
Subclasses III.a. and III.d. represent the most stable group, the later marked by the differentiation of the aforementioned nominative and accusative cases.  Nouns in class III.b. are notable for their alternate nominative singular root, although stresses remains on the same syllable.  III.c. is analogous to classes I.c. and II.c. in their root epenthesis in the nominative and dative plurals.  Nouns in class III.e. are similar to those in III.b, in that they display a variant root in the nominative singular, however in the later stress is changed in the new root, often times to syllables that are deleted in oblique forms. 
Finally, nouns in class III.f. break entirely from the other paradigms, and are occasionally categorised as their own class (class IV), descending from [[Aeranir]] e-stem nouns.  However, the [[lla Axes llos Rendre|Axes llos Rendre]] groups it into class III.  These nouns are notable for having a distinct nominative singular, but all other singular cases are merged.


{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.a.
|+Class II noun endings
|-
|-  
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|ave}}''<br>e. sun
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="3" | {{term|ave}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|aven}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|avra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|aves}}
| {{term|avre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|ave}}
| {{term|aves}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.b.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|res}}''<br>t. king, ruler
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|res}}
| {{term|rendre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|ren}}
| {{term|ren}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|rendra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|renes}}
| {{term|rendre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|ren}}
| {{term|renes}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.c.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|tevrés}}''<br>t.
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="3" | {{term|tevrés}}
| {{term|tevresdre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|tevrés}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|tevresdra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|tevresses}}
| {{term|tevresdre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|tevrés}}
| {{term|tevresses}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.d.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|huertes}}''<br>c. death
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|huertes}}
| {{term|huertre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|huerte}}
| {{term|huerte}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|huertra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|huertes}}
| {{term|huertre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|huerte}}
| {{term|huertes}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.e.
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|sadiercas}}''<br>c. darkness
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|sadiercas}}
| {{term|sarcadre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|sarcad}}
| {{term|sarcad}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|sarcadra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|sarcades}}
| {{term|sarcadre}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|sarcad}}
| {{term|sarcades}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Class III.f.
|-
! rowspan="2" |  
! rowspan="2" |  
! colspan="2" | ''{{term|cieres}}''<br>t. silk
! colspan="2" | temporary
! colspan="2" | cyclical
! colspan="2" | eternal
|-
|-
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|cieres}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|cier}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| rowspan="4" | {{term|cier}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|cierra}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| rowspan="2" | {{term|cieres}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
|}
===Articles===
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Temporary
|-
!
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| {{term|llos}}
| {{term|de}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|uy}}/{{term|ul}}
| {{term|lli}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|llo}}
| {{term|da}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|lli}}
| rowspan="2" | {{term|llos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|lla}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Cyclical
|-
!
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|lla}}
| {{term|da}}
|-
! scope="row" | Accusative
| {{term|uy}}/{{term|ul}}
|-
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|llo}}
| {{term|da}}
|-
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|uy}}/{{term|ul}}
| {{term|llos}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|lla}}
| {{term|llas}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"
|+Eternal
|-
!
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Nominative
! scope="row" | Nominative
| rowspan="2" | {{term|uy}}/{{term|ul}}
| ''-Ø, -s, -es''
| rowspan="2" | {{term|llon}}
| ''-er''
|-
| ''-Ø, -s, -es''
| ''-er''
| rowspan="3" | ''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''-en''
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Accusative
! scope="row" | Accusative
|-
| rowspan="2" | ''-e''
| ''-e''
| rowspan="2" | ''-e''
| ''-e''
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Dative
! scope="row" | Dative
| {{term|llo}}
| ''-ar''
| {{term|da}}
| ''-ar''
|-
| ''-ar''
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Genitive
! scope="row" | Genitive
| {{term|lli}}
| ''-es''
| rowspan="2" | {{term|llos}}
| ''-os''
|-
| ''-es''
| ''-os''
| ''-es''
| ''-os''
|- style="text-align:center;"
! scope="row" | Ablative
! scope="row" | Ablative
| {{term|lla}}
| ''-e''
| ''-es''
| ''-e''
| ''-es''
| ''-e''
| ''-es''
|}
|}


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