Kämpya: Difference between revisions
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In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
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However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | ||
/kʰjâṵ=ɾù | /kʰjâṵ=ɾù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
cow=ERG bite lizard | cow=ERG bite lizard | ||
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/ | ||
lizard dog=ERG bite | lizard dog=ERG bite | ||
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The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g. | ||
/dô̰k | /dô̰k ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog bite lizard | dog bite lizard | ||
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The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù | The difference between this and /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | ||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k | Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */lḭ̂zàd dô̰k ˈbíʔ/ or anything like that. | ||
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or | or | ||
/njí= | /njí=ˈbíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
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====Reciprocal Voice==== | ====Reciprocal Voice==== | ||
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. / | This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈbíʔ/ - "to bite" -> /bíˈbíʔ/ - "to bite each other". | ||
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /péiʔk/ - "to speak" -> /péiˈpéiʔk/ - "to speak to each other". | However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /péiʔk/ - "to speak" -> /péiˈpéiʔk/ - "to speak to each other". | ||
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It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
bite lizard | bite lizard | ||
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/ˈlḭ̂zàd | /ˈlḭ̂zàd ˈbíʔ/ | ||
lizard bite | lizard bite | ||
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To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g. | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite | dog ANTIP=bite | ||
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The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g. | The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g. | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT | dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT | ||
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At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said: | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
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However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_pivot]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /áˈwâḭ/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different: | ||
/dô̰k θú= | /dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee | dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee | ||
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vs. | vs. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard flee | dog=ERG bite lizard flee | ||
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Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g. | Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú= | /ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=ˈbíʔ kʰjâṵ=jàuŋ/ | ||
lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT | lizard ANTIP=bite cow=DAT | ||
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In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ dô̰k áˈwâḭ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite dog flee | lizard=ERG bite dog flee | ||
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Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause: | ||
/dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
dog lizard=ERG bite flee | dog lizard=ERG bite flee | ||
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/θú= | /θú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/ | ||
ANTIP=bite lizard flee | ANTIP=bite lizard flee | ||
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Or in a non-restrictive relative clause: | Or in a non-restrictive relative clause: | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd θú= | /ˈlḭ̂zàd θú=bíʔ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
lizard ANTIP=bite flee | lizard ANTIP=bite flee | ||
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/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà pʰò̤wè m̥ôṵ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small | ||
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/pʰò̤wè ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /pʰò̤wè ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà m̥ôṵ/ | ||
forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small | forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small | ||
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/θú= | /θú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd dô̰k=àuŋ áˈwâḭ/ | ||
ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee | ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee | ||
The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú= | The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=bíʔ dô̰g=àuŋ ˈlḭ̂zàd áˈwâḭ/) | ||
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/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà pʰò̤wè dô̰k=àuŋ m̥ôṵ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small | ||
The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù bíʔ=kà dô̰g=àuŋ pʰò̤wè m̥ôṵ/) | ||
==Mood/Evidentiality== | ==Mood/Evidentiality== | ||
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The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence | The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite dog. | 2PS.ACC=bite dog. | ||
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We can say | We can say | ||
/njí=ná= | /njí=ná=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog | ||
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as well as | as well as | ||
/ná=njí= | /ná=njí=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
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and | and | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ ná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog | ||
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However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g ŋí= | However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=dô̰g ŋí=bíʔ/ is ungrammatical. | ||
As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ ná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog | ||
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And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ nà=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog | ||
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This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs | ||
/jô̰ lét= | /jô̰ lét=bíʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
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It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g. | ||
/dô̰k jô̰ lét= | /dô̰k jô̰ lét=bíʔ nâ̰/ | ||
dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH | ||
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Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g. | ||
/ˈsʰíʔtà=zù lét= | /ˈsʰíʔtà=zù lét=bíʔ nâ̰ dô̰k/ | ||
guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog | ||
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/njí=wáná= | /njí=wáná=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog | ||
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/njí= | /njí=bíʔ wáná=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog | ||
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/njí= | /njí=bíʔ wáná=m̥ôṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog | ||
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/njí=dú= | /njí=dú=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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as well as | as well as | ||
/dú=njí= | /dú=njí=bíʔ dô̰k/ | ||
POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog | ||
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and | and | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ dú=dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog | ||
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Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g. | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ dú=m̥òṵ dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog | ||
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And adverbs e.g. | And adverbs e.g. | ||
/njí= | /njí=bíʔ dù=déiʔp dô̰k/ | ||
2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | 2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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B) / | B) /bíʔ/ | ||
bite | bite | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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A) /dô̰k dú= | A) /dô̰k dú=bíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | 2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog | ||
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/zwé= | /zwé=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
Q.ERG=bite lizard | Q.ERG=bite lizard | ||
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/ké= | /ké=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
Q.ACC=bite lizard | Q.ACC=bite lizard | ||
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/dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé | /dô̰k=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard | ||
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/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard | ||
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/dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há | /dô̰k=zù ˈkèʔ=há ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard | ||
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Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g. | ||
/dô̰k=zù | /dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have | ||
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or | or | ||
/θú= | /θú=ˈbíʔ dô̰k ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/ | ||
ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have | ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have | ||
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Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù | Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=dô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ lḭ̂zàd/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=dô̰k θú=ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd=àuŋ/. | ||
To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g. | ||
/ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù | /ˈlḭ̂zàd=zù ˈbíʔ=kà bá=pʰò̤wè ˈdô̰k=àuŋ/ | ||
lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which | lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which | ||
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If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
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If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g. | ||
/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù | /múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ/ | ||
mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite | ||
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It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù | It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ mùˈhḛ̂/. | ||
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And another example using a postposition: | And another example using a postposition: | ||
/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù | /múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí péiʔk kʰḭ̂d ˈdô̰k=zù ˈbíʔ ˈlḭ̂zàd/ | ||
mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard | ||