Thangha': Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
No edit summary |
No edit summary |
||
| Line 647: | Line 647: | ||
==Copula== | ==Copula== | ||
The Thangha' copula / | The Thangha' copula /pʲə/ (L) is a verb that conjugates regularly like all of the others. Note that for it to correspond to English "to be", it must take the atelic aspect, so in the default voice it is /ʎə-ˈbʲə/. If it takes the telic aspect (i.e. becoming /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpʲə/ in the default voice), it means "to become". | ||
Note that the copula counts as a transitive verb, so the subject generally takes the ergative case e.g. | Note that the copula counts as a transitive verb, so the subject generally takes the ergative case e.g. | ||
/ | /pəˈxeⁿda ʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L) | ||
[ | [pə́ˈxe̋ndá ʎɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄] | ||
shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS | shepherd-ERG ATEL-be shaman.ABS | ||
| Line 664: | Line 664: | ||
/ | /ˈxeⁿda ʎə-ˈbʲə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (L) (L) | ||
[ | [ˈχɛ̋ndá ʎɪ̄ˈbʲɪ̏ ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄] | ||
shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS | shepherd.TOP ATEL-be shaman.ABS | ||
| Line 678: | Line 678: | ||
/ | /ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʎəˈʑəʀə/ (HL) (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [ˈtântə̀ wá-ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄] | ||
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp | tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp | ||
| Line 689: | Line 689: | ||
===Locative Verb=== | ===Locative Verb=== | ||
Unlike English, to express location, Thangha' speakers use a different verb to the copula. This is / | Unlike English, to express location, Thangha' speakers use a different verb to the copula. This is /ˈsadˤə/ (HL), which usually takes an atelic prefix to become /ʎəˈzadˤə/. For example: | ||
/ | /ʎəˈzadˤə ˈʔjiːtə ʔɲəʀə=ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [ʎɪˈzɑ́dˤʌ̀ ˈj̰êːdˤʌ̀ ɲ̰ɘ̄ʀɔ̄ˈtʷȍʀɑ̄] | ||
ATEL-LOC food.ABS | ATEL-LOC food.ABS near=shaman | ||
The food is next to the shaman. | The food is next to the shaman. | ||
| Line 708: | Line 708: | ||
These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g. | These always follow the noun that they modify, which they are separated from by the proclitic /xaⁿ/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈtʷogə xaⁿ=ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷúgə̀ χɐ́ɲʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog.ABS REL=ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
| Line 719: | Line 719: | ||
Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g. | Inside a relative clause, subjects must always be marked with the ergative case marker e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈpəʔwəⁿ xaⁿ=pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ χɒ́mbʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀] | ||
bone REL=dog | bone REL=ERG-dog ATEL-bite | ||
The bone that the dog is biting. | The bone that the dog is biting. | ||
| Line 733: | Line 733: | ||
/ | /tfə ˈtʷogə/ (L) (HL) | ||
[ | [tfə̏ ˈtʷúgə̀] | ||
two dog | two dog | ||
| Line 742: | Line 742: | ||
To make ordinal numerals, prefix / | To make ordinal numerals, prefix /sə/ to the numeral e.g. | ||
/ | /sə-tfə ˈtʷogə/ (L) (HL) | ||
[ | [sə̀tfə̏ ˈtʷúgə̀] | ||
ORD-two dog | ORD-two dog | ||
| Line 753: | Line 753: | ||
However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is / | However, the Thangha' word for "first" is irregular. Whilst the numeral for "one" is /waⁿ/ (L), the word for "first" is /ˈfəⁿɽə/ (L)/. | ||
| Line 760: | Line 760: | ||
===Polar Questions=== | ===Polar Questions=== | ||
A statement is turned into a polar question using the particle / | A statement is turned into a polar question using the particle /pa/ (H). It comes at the beginning of the sentence, except if a noun is topicalised, in which case it follows that noun e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈtʷoʀa ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə/ (L) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄ m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀] | ||
shaman.TOP TEL-fall | shaman.TOP TEL-fall | ||
The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what | The shaman dropped to the ground (where the main point of the sentence is to say what he did) | ||
/ | /ˈtʷoʀa pa ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə/ (L) (H) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷòʀɑ̄ pa̋ m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀] | ||
shaman.TOP Q TEL-fall | shaman.TOP Q TEL-fall | ||
| Line 782: | Line 782: | ||
/ | /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə ˈtʷoʀa/ (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀ ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] | ||
TEL-fall shaman.ABS | TEL-fall shaman.ABS | ||
| Line 791: | Line 791: | ||
/ | /ʔmʲaɲə-ˈpfaɫə ˈtʷoʀa/ (H) (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [pa̋ m̰ʲǽɲɪ́ˈpfɑ́ɫʌ̀ ˈtʷòʀɑ̄] | ||
Q TEL-fall shaman.ABS | Q TEL-fall shaman.ABS | ||
| Line 800: | Line 800: | ||
/ | /ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog | dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to describe what the dog was doing) | The dog was biting the bone (where the main emphasis of the speaker is to describe what the dog was doing) | ||
/ | /pa ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [pa̋ ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog | Q dog ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
Was the dog biting the bone? | Was the dog biting the bone? | ||
/ | /pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
| Line 827: | Line 827: | ||
/ | /pa pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [pa̋ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | Q dog-ERG ATEL-bite bone.ABS | ||
| Line 836: | Line 836: | ||
/ | /ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀] | ||
bone.TOP dog | bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite | ||
The bone was being bitten by the dog. | The bone was being bitten by the dog. | ||
/ | /pa ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə/ (H) (HL) (HL) (HL) | ||
[ | [pa̋ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀] | ||
bone.TOP | bone.TOP ERG-dog ATEL-bite | ||
Was the bone being bitten by the dog? | Was the bone being bitten by the dog? | ||
| Line 859: | Line 859: | ||
/ | /ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈbedˤə cəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷùgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈbɛ́dˤʌ̀ cȅⁿ] | ||
dog-TOP ATEL-bite what | dog-TOP ATEL-bite what | ||
| Line 870: | Line 870: | ||
Thangha's equivalents of English "wh-words" are all derived from /cəⁿ/ - "what" e.g. | Thangha's equivalents of English "wh-words" are all derived from /cəⁿ/ - "what" e.g. | ||
/cəⁿ | /cəⁿ ˈpuːmʲə/ (L) (HL) [cȅⁿ ˈpʉ̂ːmʲɪ̀] - "where" (literally "what place") | ||
/cəⁿ ˈɕiːdʑaⁿ/ [ | /cəⁿ ˈɕiːdʑaⁿ/ (L) (HL) [cȅⁿ ˈɕîːdʑæ̀ⁿ] - "when" (literally "what time") | ||
/ˈcənaⁿ/ [ | /ˈcənaⁿ/ (HL) [ˈcɪ́nàⁿ] - "who" (a contraction of /ceⁿ ʔaⁿ/ - "what person") | ||
/cəⁿ fʲe/ [ | /cəⁿ fʲe/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ fʲi̋] - "how" (literally "what method") | ||
/cəⁿ | /cəⁿ ʎəfiː/ (L) (H) [cȅⁿ ʎɪ́ˈfʲi̋ː] - "why" (literally "what reason") | ||
Thangha' has two ways to ask questions where English would use "whose", depending on whether the possession is alienable or inalienable. In the case of inalienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the genitive prefix / | Thangha' has two ways to ask questions where English would use "whose", depending on whether the possession is alienable or inalienable. In the case of inalienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the genitive prefix /wa-/, becoming /wa-ˈɟəⁿ/ (L), and coming after the noun it possesses e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈpəʔwəⁿ wa-ˈɟəⁿ/ (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿˈwɞ̄ˈɟȅⁿ] | ||
bone.ABS GEN-what | bone.ABS GEN-what | ||
| Line 893: | Line 893: | ||
In the case of alienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the ergative | In the case of alienable possession, /cəⁿ/ takes the ergative prefix /pə-/, becoming /pə-ˈɟaⁿ/ e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈcəⁿ/ (HL) (L) | ||
[ | [ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pɪ̄ˈɟȅⁿ] | ||
what | bone.ABS GEN-what | ||
Whose bone? (in their | Whose bone? (in their body) | ||
| Line 909: | Line 909: | ||
===Standard Intransitive Construction=== | ===Standard Intransitive Construction=== | ||
To say "A has B" in Thangha', the standard way is for A (the possessor) to appear at the start of the sentence as a topic (in the absolutive case), followed by the verb / | To say "A has B" in Thangha', the standard way is for A (the possessor) to appear at the start of the sentence as a topic (in the absolutive case), followed by the verb /ˈtaʔa/ (H) - "to exist", taking the atelic prefix /ʎə-/, becoming /ʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (H). Finally, the possessed noun appears, also in the absolutive case. For example: | ||
/ | /ˈtʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈtʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS | dog.TOP ATEL-exist bone.ABS | ||
| Line 924: | Line 924: | ||
===Transitive Construction=== | ===Transitive Construction=== | ||
The above is the most common way to express predicative possession in Thangha', treating / | The above is the most common way to express predicative possession in Thangha', treating /ˈtaʔa/ as an intransitive verb. However, the language is undergoing a process of "have-drift", due to contact with other languages which have a transitive verb just like English "have". Recently, many speakers have begun to use the above construction interchangeably with a second construction, where the possessor is in the ergative case: | ||
/ | /pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL) | ||
[ | [pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS | dog-ERG ATEL-have bone.ABS | ||
| Line 938: | Line 938: | ||
Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g. | Speakers tend to use the transitive construction when they wish to put focus on the possessor i.e. in the above case, emphasise that it is the dog that has the bone, and not a cat / human etc. that has the bone. Speakers also use the transitive construction when they wish to topicalise the possessed noun e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈpəʔwəⁿ pə-ˈdʷogə ʎə-ˈdaʔa/ (HL) (HL) (H) | ||
[ | [ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ pʊ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá] | ||
bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have | bone.TOP dog-ERG ATEL-have | ||
| Line 947: | Line 947: | ||
However, / | However, /ˈtaʔa/ has not yet become a fully fledged transitive verb. For example, unlike other transitive verbs, it cannot take an antipassive prefix to become */ʔʎama-ˈdaʔa/. | ||
| Line 955: | Line 955: | ||
/ | /ˈʔəkfa ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (H) (H) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈʔə̋kfá ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone | 1PS.SG.AGT ATEL-have bone | ||
| Line 964: | Line 964: | ||
/ | /ˈʔaɟəⁿ ʎə-ˈdaʔa ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (H) (HL) | ||
[ | [ˈʔæ̋ɟèⁿ ʎɪ́ˈda̋ʔá ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone | 1PS.SG.PAT ATEL-have bone | ||
| Line 975: | Line 975: | ||
==Comparative Constructions== | ==Comparative Constructions== | ||
The prepositional clitic / | The prepositional clitic /ʔapəⁿ/ literally means "above", but is also used to mean "more than" e.g. | ||
/ | /ˈtaⁿtə wa-ˈdʷogə ʎəˈʑəʀə ʔapəⁿ=ˈʔɲəʔja ˈpəʔwəⁿ/ (HL) (HL) (L) (H) (HL) | ||
[ˈdantəʔ | [ˈdantəʔ wɔ́ˈdʷúgə̀ ʎɪ̄ˈʑɘ̏ʀʌ̄ ʔápɪ́ɲ=ɲ̰ɪ̋j̰æ̀ ˈpʊ́w̰ʊ̀ⁿ] | ||
tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone | tooth.TOP GEN-dog ATEL-sharp above 3PS.GEN bone | ||
The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones. | The dog's teeth are sharper than its bones. | ||