Kola: Difference between revisions

==Introduction==

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There are two Latin alphabets: a more common one based on the Semitic and Cushitic languages of Ethiopia ("Ethiopianist"), and a less common one based on other Bantu languages ("Bantuist"). The biggest difference is in the treatment of voiceless stops and affricates. In the Ethiopianist alphabet, the aspirated versions are treated as the unmarked forms and the ejective versions are treated as marked (as they are in Semitic and Cushitic languages). In the Bantuist alphabet, however, the ejectives are treated as unmarked and the aspirates as marked (as they are in Bantu languages). Since Kola is Bantu, the Bantuist alphabet more accurately represents the phonemes' status in the language; however, this article uses the more common Ethiopianist alphabet.

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===Prosody===

====Stress====

====Intonation====

===Phonotactics===

*Velar/guttural or labial obstruent + coronal obstruent or /ʃ/ - e.g. /bd, kʼt, ħʃ, ʔs/ (some speakers may separate these with /ɨ/)

*Fricative + stop - e.g. /st, ftʼ, ʃkʼ/

Word-initially, a non-glottal stop can cluster with ''r'', a non-glottal and non-coronal stop can cluster with ''l'', and a non-guttural obstruent or nasal can cluster with ''y'' or ''w''. Still, these clusters may be separated with /ɨ/ in careful speech.

Three-consonant clusters are allowed word-medially if they fulfill one of the following conditions:

*Cluster allowed in word-final position preceded or followed by a glide.

*Sonorant + homorganic obstruent + non-homorganic obstruent - e.g. /mpt, ŋks, nt͡ʃk/

The following changes occur at morpheme boundaries:

*ï + w, y > u, i / _C / w or y is geminated

*ä + w, y > o, e / _C / w or y is geminated (this rule is optional)

*ï > Ø / C_C whenever possible

*ï > Ø / _V, V_

*i > Ø / C_V

*ä/a + a, e, i, o, u > a, e, e, o, o

*front/central vowel > Ø / e_

*back/central vowel > Ø / o_

*When e/i/o/u are not assimilated to a following vowel or preceding central vowel, y/w is added as an epenthetic consonant for front and back vowels respectively.

====Allophony and variation====

*When the vowel "ä" occurs after non-labialized guttural (uvular, pharyngeal, or glottal) consonants, it becomes "a". This can also occur optionally before gutturals, especially if the guttural is followed by a central or null vowel.

These concord prefixes are considered formal and old-fashioned, and are normally replaced with animacy-based concords. Words agreeing with animate nouns use classes 1/2, while those agreeing with inanimate nouns use classes 5/6, 9/10 (used by this article), or some combination (e.g. 9/6). When a modifier is used with a noun, the concord prefix can optionally be omitted. With verbs, class 16 and 17 prefixes are used even in informal language; others are replaced with animacy concords.

<small>²</small> Productive meanings are marked with an asterisk.

<small>⁵</small> Inanimate nouns (especially those whose plural form is identical to their singular) can form an alternative plural by adding the class 6 prefix ''mä-'' to either their singular or plural. Similarly, animate nouns (especially those not already in class 1) can add the class 2 prefix ''wä-''.

Younger speakers tend to add the prefixes to the noun's singular form, while older speakers add them to the plural forms or don't add them at all. In this article, the traditional plurals are used.

<small>⁶</small> Diminutive and augmentative prefixes may be added before the prefix of the base noun or directly to the stem. Locative prefixes are always added to the beginning of the noun phrase before any other prefixes and/or modifiers.

===Articles===

Kola does not have an indefinite article.

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! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SA

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! 3SI  

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! 1P  

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! 2P  

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! 3PA

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! 3PI

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====Demonstratives====

There are three demonstratives in Kola: proximal, referential, and distal. Demonstratives can function as pronouns or adjectives.

#*Used for things near the speaker ("this/these").

#*Can be used in contrast with the referential for something that were mentioned earlier ("the former").

#*Can be used in place of personal pronouns.

#*Used in contrast with the proximal for something that was mentioned later ("the latter").

#*Used for things that are far from both the speaker and listener ("that over there").

'''Notes:'''

In the below table, like the rest of this article, animacy concord is used (with 9/10 for inanimate). Class 7/8 forms are also given in order to demonstrate the effects of sandhi, particularly in the forms for "two".

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Kola numbers

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! 1

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! 2

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! 3

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! 4

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! 5

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! 6

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! 7

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! 8

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! 9

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! 10

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===Verbs===

====Non-finite forms====

====Negative and interrogative====

'''Negation''' is accomplished with the circumfix ከ-ም ''kä-m'' in main clauses and the prefix ከ- ''kä-'' in subordinate clauses.

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'''Yes/No''' questions are formed with the suffix ''-m'' on the verb.

====TAM====

The '''perfect''' is formed by converting the final ''-ä'' of the present to ''-e''. If the present ends in a different vowel, ''-le'' is added. Suffix-derived verbs may form it irregularly (see [[Kola#Voice|voice]]).

====Voice====

==Syntax==