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Kola: Difference between revisions
→Verbs
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
'''Note:''' Native verbs normally end in ''-ä/a'', which is dropped upon the addition of suffixes. Suffixes ending in ''-ä'' similarly drop it when another suffix is added. Verbs ending in other vowels add suffixes after their final vowel. The suffixes used for irregular verbs are shown in square brackets where they differ from regular verbs. Accented suffixes override the verb's native accent. | '''Note:''' Native verbs normally end in unaccented ''-ä/a'', which is dropped upon the addition of suffixes. Suffixes ending in ''-ä'' similarly drop it when another suffix is added. Verbs ending in other vowels add suffixes after their final vowel. The suffixes used for irregular verbs are shown in square brackets where they differ from regular verbs. Accented suffixes override the verb's native accent. | ||
====Non-finite forms==== | ====Non-finite forms==== | ||
'''Infinitive''' is a class 15 noun. It is formed by adding the class 15 prefix to the verb stem - e.g. ጔደ ''gwèddä'' "to walk" (stem: ''-èddä''). | '''Infinitive''' is a class 15 noun. It is formed by adding the class 15 prefix to the verb stem - e.g. ጔደ ''gwèddä'' "to walk" (stem: ''-èddä''). | ||
'''Agent''' nouns are class 1/2. They are formed by adding the class 1/2 prefix to the nominalized verb stem. In regular verbs | '''Agent''' nouns are class 1/2. They are formed by adding the class 1/2 prefix to the nominalized verb stem. In regular verbs, the nominalized stem is formed by removing the final vowel and spirantizing the final consonant if applicable. Verbs ending in other vowels simply use the verbal stem. | ||
:e.g. ሜዝ ''mèzz'' "person who walks; companion" (pl: ዌዝ ''wèzz''). | :e.g. ሜዝ ''mèzz'' "person who walks; companion" (pl: ዌዝ ''wèzz''). | ||
====Negative and interrogative==== | ====Negative and interrogative==== | ||
'''Negation''' is accomplished with the circumfix ከ-ም ''kä-m'' in main clauses and the (post-subject) prefix ስ- ''sï-'' for subordinate verbs, infinitives, imperatives, etc. | |||
'''Negation''' is accomplished with the circumfix ከ-ም ''kä-m'' in main clauses and the prefix | :e.g. ኜደ ''nyèddä'' "I walk" → ከኜደም ''känyèddäm'' "I do not walk" | ||
:e.g. ኜደ ''nyèddä'' "I walk" → ከኜደም ''känyèddäm'' "I do not walk" | ::ስጔዴ ''sïgweddé'' "do not walk" | ||
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'''Yes/No''' questions are formed with the suffix ''-m'' on the verb. | '''Yes/No''' questions are formed with the suffix ''-m'' on the verb. | ||
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====TAM==== | ====TAM==== | ||
'''Perfect''' is formed with the suffix ''-i'' [-''y'']. Suffix-derived verbs may form it irregularly (see [[Kola#Verb_extensions|verb extensions]]). | |||
:e.g. | :e.g. ጔዲ ''gwèddi'' "to have walked" | ||
'''Present subjunctive''' is formed with the suffix ''-é'' [-''yé'']. The '''perfect subjunctive''' is formed by placing a high tone on the final vowel of the perfect. | |||
:e.g. የጔዴ ''yägweddé'' "who walks", የጔዲ ''yägweddí'' "who walked" | |||
'''Singular imperative''' is formed with the suffix ''-á'' [''-́''] in the absence of prefixes, and identically to the subjunctive in the presence of prefixes (including the negative prefix). The '''plural imperative''' is formed with the suffix ''-(ï)ní''. | |||
:e.g. ጔዳ ''gweddá'' "walk", ዪጔድሌ ''yigweddïlé'' "walk to it", ጔድኒ ''gweddïní'' "walk (pl.)", ይጔድኒ ''yigweddïní'' "walk (pl.) to it" | |||
==== | ====Verb extensions==== | ||
'''Passive''' is formed with the suffix ''-wa'' in the present and ''-(ï)lo'' in the perfect. | '''Passive''' is formed with the suffix ''-wa'' in the present and ''-(ï)lo'' in the perfect. | ||
:e.g. ጔድሏ ''gwèddïl<b>wa</b>'' "to be walked to", ጔድሎ ''gwèddïl<b>lo</b>'' "to have been walked to". | :e.g. ጔድሏ ''gwèddïl<b>wa</b>'' "to be walked to", ጔድሎ ''gwèddïl<b>lo</b>'' "to have been walked to". | ||
'''Causative''' is formed with the suffix ''-íshä'' [''-́shä''] in the present and ''- | '''Causative''' is formed with the suffix ''-íshä'' [''-́shä''] in the present and ''-íshi'' [''-́shi''] in the perfect. This suffix spirantizes and palatalizes preceding consonants wherever applicable; however, loanwords may not be affected. | ||
:e.g. ጔዚሸ ''gwezz<b>íshä</b>'' "to cause to walk", | :e.g. ጔዚሸ ''gwezz<b>íshä</b>'' "to cause to walk", ጔዚሺ ''gwezz<b>íshi</b>'' "to have caused to walk". | ||
'''Applicative''' is formed with the suffix ''-(ï)lä'' in the present and ''-(ï)li'' in the perfect. This suffix causes velar/guttural consonants to be palatalized; again, loanwords may not be affected. | |||
:e.g. ጔድለ ''gwèdd<b>ïlä</b>'' "to walk to", ጔዲሊ ''gwèdd<b>ïli</b>'' "to have walked to". | |||
''' | '''Reciprocal''' is formed with the suffix ''-ä̀nä'' [''-̀nä''] in the present and ''-ä̀ni'' [''-̀ni''] in the perfect. | ||
:e.g. | :e.g. ጔድለነ ''gweddïl<b>ä̀nä</b>'' "to walk to each other", ጔድለኒ ''gweddïl<b>ä̀ni</b>'' "to have walked to each other". | ||
''' | '''Intensive''' is formed with the suffix ''-ängä'' [''-ngä''] in the present and ''-ängi'' [''-ngi''] in the perfect. It conveys a meaning of intensiveness, repetitiveness, etc. | ||
:e.g. | :e.g. ጔደጘ ''gwèddängä'' "to walk back and forth", ጔደጚ ''gwèddängi'' "to have walked back and forth". | ||
Suffixes can be stacked. The general order is causative-applicative-reciprocal-passive, but this may change depending on meaning. Only the final suffix changes in the perfect. | Suffixes can be stacked. The general order is causative-applicative-reciprocal-intensive-passive, but this may change depending on meaning. Only the final suffix changes in the perfect. | ||
:e.g. | :e.g. ጔዚሽለነጟ ''gwezz<b>ishïlä̀nängwa</b>'' "to be made to walk repeatedly to each other", ጔዚሽለነጝሎ ''gwezz<b>ishïlä̀nänglo</b>'' "to have been made to walk repeatedly to each other". | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||