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Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailьcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.
Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailьcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.


Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''<ref>Sometimes ''ēktami avyāṣa''.</ref>), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''<ref>Sometimes ''ēktami avyāṣa''.</ref>), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.<br/>Realis verbs are furthermore marked for evidentiality: categories marked are visual evidentiality<ref>This same marker, usually a zero marker, is also used for historically attested facts and scientific truths.</ref>, non-visual evidentiality, reportative, and two different inferentials, one marking trust in and the other unlikelyness of the fact.<br/>Politeness is also encoded in the verb, but this inflection is often considered to be a form of the separate, defective auxiliary verb ''tilah''.


The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only four moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
* '''indicative''' (''chlåvdiausire darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''indicative''' (''chlåvdiausire darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''imperative''' (''spruvyūkire darišam'') - used for giving orders or commands;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes. In modern Chlouvānem it has also replaced the imperative in most contexts;
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.


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* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junia'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junia'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)


Finally, there are a further six forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are:
Finally, there are a further two forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are two '''consequential moods''', the first one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), and the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).<br/>
* four of them (only used with the indicative mood) express '''evidentiality''', namely: certainty (also '''energetic mood'''), deduction, dream, and hearsay (also '''inferential mood''');
Chlouvānem furthermore also have a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).
* two '''consequential moods''': one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).
Chlouvānem verbs also have a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).


The high degree of synthesis of the Chlouvānem verb is often mentioned through examples such as ''įstayamāmālvisannutsa'', meaning "even if, apparently, (s)he regularly wanted to tie up something...", a form of the verb ''įsmāmalveke'' "to regularly tie up something", itself derived from the verb ''įsmālke'' "to tie up", ultimately from the single root ''māl-'' "to unite".
The high degree of synthesis of the Chlouvānem verb is often mentioned through examples such as ''įstayamāmālvisannutsa'', meaning "even if, apparently, (s)he regularly wanted to tie up something...", a form of the verb ''įsmāmalveke'' "to regularly tie up something", itself derived from the verb ''įsmālke'' "to tie up", ultimately from the single root ''māl-'' "to unite".
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A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/>
A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/>
The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG past) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic.
The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG visual past and in all present indicative causative exterior terminations) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic.


Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to eleven verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs:
Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to eleven verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs:
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* ''miāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, miāk, amiā''
* ''miāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, miāk, amiā''
* ''skliāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, skliāk, askliā''
* ''skliāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, skliāk, askliā''
===The causative and perfect stems===
Causative stems are easy to form: they are formed by attaching the stem extension ''-ild-'' (see below) to the infinitive stem; however, ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem (e.g. ''miš-'' → ''maiš-ild-'').
The perfect stem (used for the perfect and for the intentional future) formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples:
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''
* ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męlь → emęlь-''
'''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o):
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-''
* ''kolkake'' “to be acid” = ''kolk- → akolk-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to know, understand” = ''tṛl- → atṛl-''
* ''ṛṣme'' "to plan to, to have the intention of" = ''ṛṣm- → ṝṣm-''
* ''yaudake'' “to catch” = ''yaud- → oyaud-''
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → elait-''
Causative stems with ablaut have a full reduplication, using the first consonant plus the basic vowel grade, like ''miš- → maiš- → mimaiš-''. The causative interior forms have ''-ildr-'' with a short vowel, unlike for the past and present.<br/>''i-'' and ''u-'' initial stems have ''yai-'' and ''vau-'' respectively (e.g. ''ta-ut-'' → ''ta-vaut-'').


===The infinitive===
===The infinitive===
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The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''neniai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''neniai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book").
The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''neniai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''neniai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book").


===Present indicative===
===Hues (''juniai'')===
The regular present indicative has a distinct form for all verb types.<br/>Ablauting verbs have ''middle grade'' ablaut in all exterior forms and in the singular interior ones, but inverse-ablauting verbs have always the unreduced sequence.
Chlouvānem verbs are typically defined by the three (four) stems detailed above in the verb class section: present, past, perfect, and infinitive stem.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
 
|-
The four "hues" (better known by their native term of ''juniai'', sg. ''junia'') are regularly formed verb forms with different meanings: desiderative, necessitative, potential, and permissive. They are not considered moods because each of them may be found in all three Chlouvānem moods, even though they lack an infinitive form. All of them are built starting from the infinitive stem.
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | Thematic, no ablaut !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | -ah-
 
|-
====General consonant reduplication rules====
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to see"</small> !! colspan=2 | lilke <br/><small>"to live; ''int.:'' to get healed<ref>The compound ''nalilke'' (exterior only) is more common in this sense.</ref>"</small>
The following rules are used in reduplicating the initial consonant while forming ''junia'' stems, as well as in the derivation of frequentative verbs. Variations on these rules are explained when referring to a particular ''junia''.
|-
 
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:
|-
* Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs;
| nāmv'''u''' || nāmv'''iru''' || gṇyāv'''u''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || meš'''u''' || meš'''iru''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęru'''
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-''';
|-
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';

! 2nd
* '''ġ-''' as '''ġ-''', but in the root it becomes '''ɂ'''.
| nāmv'''i''' || nāmv'''iris''' || gṇyāv'''i''' || gṇyāv'''iris''' || meš'''i''' || meš'''iris''' || lil'''aši''' || lil'''ęris'''
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''.
|-
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-).
! 3rd
* Initial clusters which begin with '''s-''', '''ṣ-''', '''š-''', or '''v-''' use the first consonant which is not one of them (but '''šv-''' reduplicates as '''š-''');
| nāmv'''ē''' || nāmv'''ire''' || gṇyāv'''ē''' || gṇyāv'''ire''' || meš'''ē''' || meš'''ire''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęre'''
* Verbs with ablautable vowels almost always have middle-grade ablaut (there are a few exceptions, such as ''khlu-''); '''ṛ''' reduplicates as '''a''';
|-
* Inverse-ablaut verbs have the consonant of the unreduced root but the reduced vowel;
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
* Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial '''ɂ'''.
| nāmv'''asme''' || nāmv'''irṣme''' || gṇyau'''sme''' || gṇyāv'''irṣme''' || meš'''asme''' || miš'''irṣme''' || lil'''ąsme''' || lil'''ęrṣme'''
* Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.
|-
 
! 2nd
====The desiderative ''junia''====
| nāmv'''adia''' || nāmv'''irdia''' || gṇyau'''dia''' || gṇyāv'''irdia''' || meš'''adia''' || miš'''irdia''' || lil'''ardia''' || lil'''ęrdia'''
The '''desiderative''' '''''junia''''' is formed by reduplicating of the root and suffixing '''-s'''. The vowel used in the reduplication is the base grade (always oral short), while the one in the original root position shifts to the middle grade (if possible). Inverse-ablauting roots have the reduced vowel in the root position and the original consonant (''y-'' or ''v-'') at the beginning, with saṃdhi applied as needed.
|-
 
! 3rd
Final added '''-s''' has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):
| nāmv'''ade''' || nāmv'''irde''' || gṇyau'''de''' || gṇyāv'''irde''' || meš'''ade''' || miš'''irde''' || lil'''arde''' || lil'''ęrde'''
* '''-d-s''' and '''-dh-s''' both become '''-ts''';
|-
* After voiced stops, '''-s''' becomes '''-r''' and aspirated stops lose aspiration. '''-j-s''' and '''-jh-s''' both become '''-jl''';
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
* '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ''';
| nāmv'''įm''' || nāmv'''irįm''' || gṇyāv'''įm''' || gṇyāv'''irįm''' || meš'''įm''' || miš'''irįm''' || lil'''ąim''' || lil'''ęrįm'''
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š''';
|-
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''-lь''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-relь-'''.
! 2nd
 
| nāmv'''ašin''' || nāmv'''iršin''' || gṇyau'''šin''' || gṇyāv'''iršin''' || meš'''ašin''' || miš'''iršin''' || lil'''ąšin''' || lil'''ęršin'''
The resulting stem, athematic, is used as the present and past stem. The perfect stem vocalic augment is short if the vowel in the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise it is long (cf. ''nanāmvsute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmvsaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush" vs. ''šukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūšukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search").
|-
 
! 3rd
Desiderative examples:
| nāmv'''āhai''' || nāmv'''irāhe''' || gṇyāv'''āhai''' || gṇyāv'''irāhe''' || meš'''āhai''' || miš'''irāhe''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęrāhe'''
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-'' (pf. stem ''epepeits-'')
|}
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-'' (pf. stem ''unulgots-'')
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-'' (pf. stem ''ūšukhlus-'')
 
Four verbs have irregular stems:
* ''jalle'' "to be" → ''jijāl-''
* ''lilke'' "to live" → ''lēlikṣ-''
* ''męlike'' "to give" → ''mimęñ-''
* ''milke'' "to take" → ''mūṃchl-''
 
====The necessitative ''junia''====
The '''necessitative''' '''''junia''''' is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative; it uses a stem formed by reduplication, and adding '''-sū-''', with the same saṃdhi changes found in the desiderative. There are a few differences in the reduplication:
* They have higher-grade or lenghthened vowel in the ''reduplication'' and not the stem;
* Verbs with non-ablauting vowels always have ''ī'';
* Inverse-ablauting verbs have ''va'' or ''ya'' as reduplication, followed by the root with the reduced vowel (''va-u-'' and ''ya-i-'' regularly become ''vo-'' and ''e-'')
The resulting stem is a regular vocalic stem.
 
The perfect stem always has a short vowel; quality is still based on the root vowel.
 
Necessitative examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pīpeitsū-'' (pf. stem. ''epīpeitsū-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šokhlusū-'' (pf. stem. ''ušokhlusū-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-'' (pf. stem. ''inenilšū-'')
* ''valde'' “to open” → ''voltsū-'' (pf. stem. ''uvoltsū-'')
 
====The potential ''junia''====
The '''potential''' '''''junia''''' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and has a stem formed with initial reduplication. It is formed by adding '''-(e)nā-''' to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that ''-r-nā-'' becomes '''-rṇā-''' due to saṃdhi. Formation of the perfect stem follows the same rules as in the desiderative.
 
Potential examples:

* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)” → ''pepeithnā-'' (pf. stem. ''epepeithnā-'')
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''šukhlunā-'' (pf. stem. ''ūšukhlunā-'')
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyenā-'' (pf. stem. ''īninelyenā-'')
 
A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''.
 
The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte šergē'' - while the "can" sense may be rephrased with ''novake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte novē'' - or (less commonly) with the infinitive - e.g. ''dṛke novute''.


'''Causative'''<br/>
====The permissive ''junia''====
Causative forms are the same regardless of conjugation; they are formed basically with an extended stem with ''-ild(e)-'' (''-īldr-'' for the causative interior forms). Ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem.<br/>
The '''permissive''' '''''junia''''' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed with a reduplication with ''-ī-'' as the only possible vowel - except for verbs with a reduplicated non-nasal labial consonant, which have ''ū'' - and ''-ūd-'' after the root. The perfect stem always has a short vowel, and is formed as in the necessitative.
All causative verbs have both exterior and interior forms.


{| class="redtable lightredbg"
Permissive examples:
|-

* ''mišake'' “to see”, → ''mīmišūd-'' (pf. stem. ''imīmišūd-'')
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pūpeithūd-'' (pf. stem. ''epūpeithūd-'')
|-
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nīnilyūd-'' (pf. stem. ''inīnilyūd-'')
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildu''' || nāmv'''īldru''' || maiš'''ildu''' || maiš'''īldru''' || uvald'''ildu''' || uvald'''īldru'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildi''' || nāmv'''īldri''' || maiš'''ildi''' || maiš'''īldri''' || uvald'''ildi''' || uvald'''īldri'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ilde''' || nāmv'''īldre''' || maiš'''ilde''' || maiš'''īldre''' || uvald'''ilde''' || uvald'''īldre'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildesme''' || nāmv'''īldṛsme''' || maiš'''ildesme''' || maiš'''īldṛsme''' || uvald'''ildesme''' || uvald'''īldṛsme'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildedia''' || nāmv'''īldṛdia''' || maiš'''ildedia''' || maiš'''īldṛdia''' || uvald'''ildedia''' || uvald'''īldṛdia'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ildede''' || nāmv'''īldṛde''' || maiš'''ildede''' || maiš'''īldṛde''' || uvald'''ildede''' || uvald'''īldṛde'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildįm''' || nāmv'''īldrįm''' || maiš'''ildįm''' || maiš'''īldrįm''' || uvald'''ildįm''' || uvald'''īldrįm'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildešin''' || nāmv'''īldṛšin''' || maiš'''ildešin''' || maiš'''īldṛšin''' || uvald'''ildešin''' || uvald'''īldṛšin'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ildǣhai''' || nāmv'''īldrāhe''' || maiš'''ildǣhai''' || maiš'''īldrāhe''' || uvald'''ildǣhai''' || uvald'''īldrāhe'''
|}


===Past Indicative===
Bisyllabic roots which have as their second syllable an unstressed vowel between two consonants that may form an allowed cluster (thus sonorant-vowel-stop/fricative, except ''-m-velar'') lose this vowel while adding the suffix, e.g. ''nąroṃke'' > ''nīnąrmūd-''.
In the past indicative, -ah verbs are not distinguished from others. Frequentative verbs in ''-ve(y)-'' are completely regular, but the suffix becomes ''-vi(y)-'', e.g. ''mīmīšviyek'' "it was frequently seen" vs. present ''mīmīšveyē'' "it is frequently seen".<br/>
Ablauting verbs always have their base grade, except for inverse ablaut roots which use the reduced vowel.
Exterior forms:
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | Thematic, no ablaut !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Inverse-ablaut
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to open"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''au''' || nāmv'''irau''' || gṇyāv'''au''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || uld'''au''' || uld'''irau'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ei''' || nāmv'''irei''' || gṇyāv'''ei''' || gṇyāv'''irei''' || uld'''ei''' || uld'''irei'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ek''' || nāmv'''irek''' || gṇyāv'''ek''' || gṇyāv'''irek''' || uld'''ek''' || uld'''irek'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''aram''' || nāmv'''irlam''' || gṇyau'''ram''' || gṇyāv'''irlam''' || uld'''aram''' || uld'''irlam'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ares''' || nāmv'''irles''' || gṇyau'''res''' || gṇyāv'''irles''' || uld'''ares''' || uld'''irles'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''adat''' || nāmv'''irdat''' || gṇyau'''dat''' || gṇyāv'''irdat''' || uld'''adat''' || uld'''irdat'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''anāja''' || nāmv'''irāja''' || gṇyau'''nāja''' || gṇyāv'''irāja''' || uld'''anāja''' || uld'''irāja'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''aneši''' || nāmv'''ireši''' || gṇyau'''neši''' || gṇyāv'''ireši''' || uld'''aneši''' || uld'''ireši'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''aika''' || nāmv'''ireka''' || gṇyāv'''aika''' || gṇyāv'''ireka''' || uld'''aika''' || uld'''ireka'''
|}


Some verbs have an irregular 3SG exterior past form due to ''-k'' attaching directly to the consonant. This does not happen in all athematic verbs, but only in the following ones:
===Stem extensions and terminations===
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands" and ''sturake'' "to fall" which have ''pāṭ'' and ''stāṭ'' respectively.
Stem extensions are bound morphemes that may be placed after the stem, and mark four different categories. Up to one for each category may be present:
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage<ref>For the latter two meanings, the regular athematic verb ''halimaiške'' (halimaišē, halimaišek, ehalimaiše) is more commonly used.</ref>" (''lak''), ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce" (''ssak''), ''sprutake'' "to join, link" (''sprak'')
* ''leilge'' "to concern, to be on the topic of" (''lål'')
* ''peithake'' "to go on foot (multidirectional)" (''pat'')
* ''ręiske'' "to tickle" (''rąs'') and ''ñæssake'' "to blink" (''ños'')


'''Causative'''<br/>
# The first stem extension is the causative marker '''-ild-''' (non-causatives are not marked)
Causative forms use the same stems as in the present indicative.
# The second stem extension is the interior verb marker '''-ir-''' (exterior verbs are not marked)
Exterior forms:
# The third stem extension is the evidential category: '''-∅-''' for direct visual evidentiality – as well as knowledge by trusted (proved) historical facts and laws of science –; '''-yat-''' for non-visual evidentiality; reportative '''-adm-'''; first (likely, trusted) inferential '''-ann-'''; and second (unlikely, doubted) inferential '''-āk-'''.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
# The fourth stem extention, which is entirely optional (i.e. there is no unmarked category), marks consequentiality: '''-(n)ār-''' for a cause ("given that...") or '''-uts-''' for an opposition.
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildau''' || nāmv'''īldrau''' || maiš'''ildau''' || maiš'''īldrau''' || uvald'''ildau''' || uvald'''īldrau'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildei''' || nāmv'''īldrei''' || maiš'''ildei''' || maiš'''īldrei''' || uvald'''ildei''' || uvald'''īldrei'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ildek''' || nāmv'''īldrek''' || maiš'''ildek''' || maiš'''īldrek''' || uvald'''ildek''' || uvald'''īldrek'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildaram''' || nāmv'''īldṛvam''' || maiš'''ildaram''' || maiš'''īldṛvam''' || uvald'''ildaram''' || uvald'''īldṛvam'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildares''' || nāmv'''īldṛves''' || maiš'''ildares''' || maiš'''īldṛves''' || uvald'''ildares''' || uvald'''īldṛves'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ildat''' || nāmv'''īldṛdat''' || maiš'''ildat''' || maiš'''īldṛdat''' || uvald'''ildat''' || uvald'''īldṛdat'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ildāja''' || nāmv'''īldrāja''' || maiš'''ildāja''' || maiš'''īldrāja''' || uvald'''ildāja''' || meš'''īldrāja'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ildeši''' || nāmv'''īldreši''' || maiš'''ildeši''' || maiš'''īldreši''' || uvald'''ildeši''' || uvald'''īldreši'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ildaika''' || nāmv'''īldreka''' || maiš'''ildaika''' || maiš'''īldreka''' || uvald'''ildaika''' || uvald'''īldreka'''
|}


===Perfect Indicative===
Stem extensions may be stacked and may also combine in unpredictable ways. The combinations listed here are those that do <small>''NOT''</small> follow regular saṃdhi (all other ones are regular).
The perfect is formed with the same terminations for all verbs. The particularity of this tense is that it uses a special stem (used for the perfect and for the future intentional), formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples:
* -ild-ir- → ''-ildṛ-''
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''
* -ild-adm- → ''-ildm-''
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''
* -ild-ir-adm- → ''-ildṛdm-''
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''
* -ild-ir-ann- → ''-ildṛn-''
* ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męlь → emęlь-''
* -ild-ir-(n)ār- → ''-ildṝl-''
'''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o):
* -ild-ir-uts- → ''-ildṝts-''
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-''
* -ir-adm- → ''-irdm-''
* ''kolkake'' “to be acid” = ''kolk- → akolk-''
* -ir-ann- → ''-irṇ-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to know, understand” = ''tṛl- → atṛl-''
* -ir-(n)ār- → ''-irāl-''
* ''ṛṣme'' "to plan to, to have the intention of" = ''ṛṣm- → ṝṣm-''
* -ir-uts- → ''-irts-''
* ''yaudake'' “to catch” = ''yaud- → oyaud-''
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → elait-''


Causative stems with ablaut have a full reduplication, using the first consonant plus the basic vowel grade, like ''miš- → maiš- → mimaiš-''. The causative interior forms have ''-ildr-'' with a short vowel, unlike for the past and present.<br/>''i-'' and ''u-'' initial stems have ''yai-'' and ''vau-'' respectively (e.g. ''ta-ut-'' → ''ta-vaut-'').
Finally, note that some stem extensions may trigger a change in the personal termination (e.g. the third person plural present indicative interior ''-irāhe'', not *-ir-āhai), while there are a few special personal terminations that already have the meaning of a stem extension (e.g. third person perfect indicative exterior ''-æ'' which also has the reportative meaning, therefore *-adm-a is impossible).


A few verbs have irregular stems:
Note, furthermore, that ''-ir-'' (when not preceded by the causative marker) becomes '''-ęr-''' in the present of class 11 ''-ah'' verbs.
* ''lulke'' "to go (unidirectional)" = ''elīs-''
* ''lilke'' “to live” = ''lælī-''
* ''dṛke'' “to do” = ''dadrā-''


Note that in the perfect, the 3rd person does not distinguish number:
====Personal terminations====
The following table includes an overview of the sets of personal termination in Chlouvānem. Note that, in the indicative mood, whenever a personal termination encoding evidentiality is not included, that means that the form together with the stem extension has to be used, not that that particular form is not possible.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | !! rowspan=2 | <small>1SG</small> !! rowspan=2 | <small>2SG</small> !! colspan=4 | <small>3SG</small> !! rowspan=2 | <small>1DU</small> !! rowspan=2 | <small>2DU</small> !! colspan=2 | <small>3DU</small> !! rowspan=2 | <small>1PL</small> !! rowspan=2 | <small>2PL</small> !! colspan=4 | <small>3PL</small>
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
!! {{abbtip|Visual evidentiality|<small>VIS</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Non-visual evidentiality|<small>NVIS</small>}} !! {{abbtip|First inferential|<small>INF1</small>}}<ref>The second inferential uses, where available, '''this''' form - not the visual evidential - together with the ''-āk-'' stem extention.</ref> !! {{abbtip|Reportative|<small>REP</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Visual evidentiality|<small>VIS</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Reportative|<small>REP</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Visual evidentiality|<small>VIS</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Non-visual evidentiality|<small>NVIS</small>}} !! {{abbtip|First inferential|<small>INF1</small>}} !! {{abbtip|Reportative|<small>REP</small>}}
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective
| -u || -i || colspan=3 | -ē || -ice || -sme || -dia || -de || -icen || -įm || -šin || colspan=3 | -āhai || -auja
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! Past<br/>Opt. Perfective
| anāmv'''am''' || anāmv'''iram''' || anāmv'''ildam''' || anāmv'''ildṛm'''
| -au || -ei || -ek || -epa || -āl || -os || -ram || -res || -dat || -ālut || -nāja || -neši || -aika || -epai || -ālun || -oše
|-
|-
! 2nd
! rowspan=3 | Indicative<br/>only !! Perfect
| anāmv'''es''' || anāmv'''ires''' || anāmv'''ildes''' || anāmv'''ildṛs'''
| -am || -es || colspan=3 | -a || -æ || -ra || -ri || -a || -æ || -ima || -iša || colspan=3 | -a || -æ
|-
! 3rd
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| anāmv'''ara''' || anāmv'''irala''' || anāmv'''ildara''' || anāmv'''ildrāh'''
|-
! 2nd
| anāmv'''ari''' || anāmv'''irali''' || anāmv'''ildari''' || anāmv'''ildrai'''
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Simple future
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| colspan=16 style="text-align: center;" | '''''-iṣy-''''' ''plus perfect terminations''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! Intentional future
| anāmv'''ima''' || anāmv'''irma''' || anāmv'''ildima''' || anāmv'''ildṛma'''
| colspan=16 style="text-align: center;" | '''''-ālt-''''' ''('''-āl-''' in interior and causative forms) plus perfect terminations''
|-
|-
! 2nd
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective
| anāmv'''iša''' || anāmv'''irša''' || anāmv'''ildiša''' || anāmv'''ildṛša'''
| -ati || -īsь || colspan=4 | -ī || -īndu || -īndi || colspan=2 | -ī || -īnam || -īnes || colspan=4 | -ī
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Perfective
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| -ēta || -ēti || colspan=4 | -ēt || -ētham || -ēthai || colspan=2 | -ēt || -eine || -eiše || colspan=4 | -ēt
|}
|}


=== General future indicative ===
Additional notes:
The general future tense does not vary between conjugations, and the stem - except for causative verbs - is always the one used in the infinitive. Like the perfect, the future does not distinguish number in the 3rd person (historically, the endings were the same, as the future was built with the perfect of PLB *išəj- (to take)). It is used for general future events (''menire dašajildiṣya'' "it will rain tomorrow"), obligations (''pūnikā menire męliṣya'' "the work will be [=has to be] delivered tomorrow"), and general imperfective events in the future (''lūlunimarte liliṣyam'' "I'll be living in Lūlunimarta"); see also the following section on ''future intentional''.
* The present indicative exterior terminations of ''-ah'' verbs are: ''-ah -aši -ah ; -ąsme -ardia -arde ; -ąim -ąšin -ah'', with no distinct evidential forms.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
* The ''-ir-'' root extension causes the <small>3SG</small> indicative present ''-ē'' to become ''-e'' and the <small>3PL</small> indicative present ''-āhai'' to become ''-āhe''.
|-
 
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
====Politeness markers (''tilah'')====
|-
The verb ''tilah'' is the only Chlouvānem verb which does not have an infinitive form and is only used, attached to the ''an-form'' of a particular verb, as a marker of politeness. Its use dates from the early part of the 5th millennium, as an adaptation of Lällshag ''tiluru'' (to obey) and, in the past, of ''nuyuru'' (to serve). Apart from the lack of an infinitive, it has some particularities, namely that it only conjugates in the three basic moods (indicative, subjunctive, and optative). The ''juniai'' are not marked on ''tilah'' but on the true verb (always in its infinitive stem, modified according to the needed ''junia'') and it is also defective in lacking evidentials and consequentials (the form without ''tilah'' is used instead).
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
 
|-
Its conjugation is mostly regular but has some particularities:
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
* The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tilęm - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...'').
|-
* The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ilьd'': ''tilьdu, tilьdi, tilьde...'' interior ''tilьdru, tilьdri, tilьdre...''
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
* The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nināja - nineši - nīvē''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...'').
| nāmv'''iṣyam''' || nāmv'''iriṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyam'''
* The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlьr-'' (''nīlьram, nīlьres, nīlьrā...'') and the causative ''nīlьd-'' (''nīlьdam, nīlьdes, nīlьdā...'' ''nīlьdṛm, nīlьdṛs, nīlьdirā...'').
|-
* The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...'').
! 2nd
* The subjunctive imperfective exterior is regular with the stem ''til-'' in the 1SG (''tilati'') and only ''t'' in the others (''tīsь, tī...''). The interior has ''tiler-'' and the causative ''tireld-''.
| nāmv'''iṣyes''' || nāmv'''iriṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyes'''
* The subjunctive perfective exterior always has the stem ''t-'' (''tēta, tēti, tēt...''); the interior has ''tilьr-'' and the causative ''tilьd-'')
|-
* The optative is completely regular, with the (regular) stem ''tilūy-''.
! 3rd
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''iṣyara''' || nāmv'''iriṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyara'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''iṣyari''' || nāmv'''iriṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyari'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''iṣīma''' || nāmv'''iriṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīma'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''iṣīsa''' || nāmv'''iriṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīsa'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
|}


Note that ''-tiā-'' verbs (e.g. ''tatiāke'' "to stand") form their future with ''-tiā'' instead of ''-tim'' as the other tenses: ''tatiaiṣyam'', ''tatiairiṣyam'', ...
All voice affixes come before ''tilah'', as if the ''an-form'' were only a verbal prefix. The honorific verb is not used where there already is a honorific suppletive verb (cf. ''moṣite'' "you (honorific) ask" (verb ''muṣke'') → ''pardhite'' (verb ''pṛdhake''), not *muṣṭetilši).


Also note that, in order to state the future of "to be" and "to have", the '''present''' forms of ''ndǣke'' (to become) and ''milke'' (to get, take) respectively are more commonly used:
Note that roots ending in -Cv- and -Cy- undergo a special saṃdhi change that changes those in -Cu- and -Ci- before consonants (see first example below).
: ''hulābdān ndevē'' "it is becoming good" = "it will be good" = exactly the same meaning as ''hulābdān jalṣya''.
: ''nanau naviṣyu milkute'' "I am taking that book" = "I will have that book" = exactly the same as ''naviṣya liliā jalṣya'' or similar sentences.


=== Future intentional indicative ===
Examples of the use of ''tilah'':
The future intentional indicative is a verbal form used for stating mainly intentional, perfective in meaning, future events. It may be translated most commonly as "to be going to", "to plan to", or also as "to want to"; it also has the rather idiomatic meaning of an expectation. In any case, its perfective meaning means that habitual or continuous future events, even if planned, are either expressed with the general future or expressed with the future intentional of a frequentative verb. Some examples of its use are:
* ''nāmvegde'' ((s)he/it crushes) → ''nāmutetilah''
: ''menire prājaṃnē lalti lenta nakṣuṃkitom elīsāltam'' "tomorrow evening I'll go to the ''nakṣuṃkita''<ref>A small bar focused on music performances.</ref> with my friend".
* ''lå'' (I go, walk) → ''luntilah''
: ''galiākinų tammi šulkų railų natte tailīsālta'' "the train from Galiākina is expected to arrive in five railai (=a bit more than 4½ minutes)."
* ''pūni'' (you work) → ''pūntilši''
: ''liliā maiha murkire helajyū ilakāltate : lili no ūnikire tū ilakāltaṃte'' "my daughter is going to take the black ''helajyā''<ref>A kind of blouse, usually worn with a Chlouvānem sarī (''jånirāh'').</ref>, while I'm going to take the red one."
* ''pupūṃsįm'' (we want to work) → ''pupūṃstilęm''
* ''pū pūnī'' (if (s)he/it works) → ''pū pūntī''


The future intentional is formed starting from the ''perfect stem'': more properly, the third person form of any present verb is taken, the final ''-a'' is lengthened, and ''-lta'' (in the non-causative exterior) or ''-l(a)-'' (in all other forms) is added, followed by the usual perfect endings; the causative exterior has the otherwise irregular change ''-rā-'' → ''-ṝ-''.
In actual usage, ''tilah'' denotes respect towards the listener, and is used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way so, even in polite speech, not all verbs will use ''tilah'' - overusing it is a common error among people learning the language, not only foreigners but also young Chlouvānem people themselves.  
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| anāmv'''āltam''' || anāmv'''irālam''' || anāmv'''ildālam''' || anāmv'''ildṝlam'''
|-
! 2nd
| anāmv'''āltes''' || anāmv'''irāles''' || anāmv'''ildāles''' || anāmv'''ildṝlas'''
|-
! 3rd
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| anāmv'''āltara''' || anāmv'''irālara''' || anāmv'''ildālara''' || anāmv'''ildṝlāh'''
|-
! 2nd
| anāmv'''āltari''' || anāmv'''irālari''' || anāmv'''ildālari''' || anāmv'''ildṝlai'''
|-
! 3rd
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| anāmv'''āltima''' || anāmv'''irālma''' || anāmv'''ildālima''' || anāmv'''ildṝlma'''
|-
! 2nd
| anāmv'''āltiša''' || anāmv'''irālša''' || anāmv'''ildāliša''' || anāmv'''ildṝlša'''
|-
! 3rd
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
|}


=== Voice marking ===
===Voice markers===
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are:
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are:
* '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''-ē-te'' (in most 3sg verbs) becomes ''-egde'' (as ''-ē'' derives from historical *-eg);
* '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''-ē-te'' (in most 3sg verbs) becomes ''-egde'' (as ''-ē'' derives from historical *-eg);
Line 1,141: Line 1,013:
: garden.<small>DIR.SG</small>. lalāruṇa-<small>ESS.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR-LOCATIVE</small>.
: garden.<small>DIR.SG</small>. lalāruṇa-<small>ESS.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR-LOCATIVE</small>.
: There is a lalāruṇa in the garden.
: There is a lalāruṇa in the garden.
===The subjunctive mood===
The subjunctive mood only distinguishes aspects and not tense; it is formed by special terminations and has exterior, interior, regular and causative forms.
The subjunctive is fairly regular for all verbs, using (except in the causative conjugation) the most basic form of the root — that is,  in basic grade ablaut; the only exceptions being inverse ablauting roots which use their weakened form (e.g. ''valde'' uses ''uld-'' and not ''vald-'').
'''Imperfective aspect'''
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ati''' || nāmv'''irte''' || nāmv'''ilde''' || nāmv'''ildret'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īsь''' || nāmv'''iresь''' || nāmv'''ildīsь''' || nāmv'''ildresь'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''īndu''' || nāmv'''irdu''' || nāmv'''iledu''' || nāmv'''ildṛdu'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īndi''' || nāmv'''īrdi''' || nāmv'''iledi''' || nāmv'''ildṛdi'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''īnam''' || nāmv'''irenam''' || nāmv'''ildīnam''' || nāmv'''ildṛnam'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īnes''' || nāmv'''irenes''' || nāmv'''ildīnes''' || nāmv'''ildṛnes'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
|}
'''Perfective aspect'''
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''ēta''' || nāmv'''irēta''' || nāmv'''ildēta''' || nāmv'''ildrēta'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ēti''' || nāmv'''irēti''' || nāmv'''ildēti''' || nāmv'''ildrēti'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''ētham''' || nāmv'''irētham''' || nāmv'''ildētham''' || nāmv'''ildrētham'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ēthai''' || nāmv'''irēthai''' || nāmv'''ildēthai''' || nāmv'''ildrēthai'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| nāmv'''eine''' || nāmv'''ireine''' || nāmv'''ildeine''' || nāmv'''ildrene'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''eiše''' || nāmv'''ireiše''' || nāmv'''ildeiše''' || nāmv'''ildreše'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
|}
===The imperative mood===
The imperative is a defective paradigm, lacking all dual forms — note, though, that some grammarians follow common use and simply list dual forms that are exactly the same as the plural ones; the third person forms do not distinguish number anyway. It is formed from the bare root, thus it has the same formation for all verbs. Unlike all other terminations, there are separate agentive and patientive ones. Causative forms follow the same pattern as non-causative ones, but the stem is the specifically causative one.
The imperative has imperfective and perfective aspects (the latter having the same terminations, except for 2SG and 3SG, but with the perfect stem), like the subjunctive: the perfective forms are used with a time expression and indicate that the action has to be done before that time, e.g. ''enaukaṃrye parās irįšæ'' "have your hair cut before the summer" - cf. ''enaukaṃrye parās rįša'' "get a haircut during the summer".
In contemporary Chlouvānem, most forms of the imperative are obsolete: the imperfective imperative is typically only used in the 2SG and in the 3SG patientive; the singular and first-person plural (except for the 1SG and 3SG causatives) are the only ones commonly used in the perfective. The imperative is, furthermore, colloquial and may be impolite in many cases; wherever a command is needed, the optative is used instead, if not even more complex constructions.<br/>The imperative is however used for generic, mandatory commands, most notably on warning signs or announcements, such as e.g. ''nakāyų thiatia'' "mind the gap".
''In all following tables, forms in <small>smaller italic font</small> are obsolete in contemporary Chlouvānem.''
'''Imperfective aspect'''
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=3 | Non-causative !! colspan=3 | Causative
|-
! colspan=6 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| <small>''nāmv'''iku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''yasu'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''iriku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildiku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildesu'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildriku'''''</small>
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''ota''' || nāmv'''a''' || nāmv'''ih''' || nāmv'''ilduta''' || nāmv'''ilda''' || nāmv'''ildṝ'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''ogit''' || <small>''nāmv'''āgi'''''</small> || nāmv'''irogi''' || <small>''nāmv'''ildogi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildāgi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildrogi'''''</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan=3 colspan=6 style="text-align: center;" | ''No dual imperative forms''
|-
! 2nd
|-
! 3rd
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| <small>''nāmv'''immi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''yasmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''irimmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildimmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildesmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildrimmi'''''</small>
|-
! 2nd
| <small>''nāmv'''oše'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''irąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ilduše'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildruše'''''</small>
|-
! 3rd
| <small>''nāmv'''avija'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''aik'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''iroja'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildoja'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildaik'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildroja'''''</small>
|}
Note that the second person singular agentive non-causative form does not take '''-a''' if the ending of the root is already acceptable (e.g. ''lgut!'' "buy!"). If the root ends with a palatalized consonant, it remains as such if it ends with a single acceptable consonant (e.g. ''męlь!'' "give!), otherwise it adds ''-i'' (e.g. ''dhāsmi!'' "save!").
'''Perfective aspect'''
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=3 | Non-causative !! colspan=3 | Causative
|-
! colspan=6 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| anāmv'''iku''' || anāmv'''yasu''' || anāmv'''iriku''' || <small>''anāmv'''ildiku'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildesu'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildriku'''''</small>
|-
! 2nd
| anāmv'''os''' || anāmv'''æ''' || anāmv'''ih''' || anāmv'''ildos''' || anāmv'''ildæ''' || anāmv'''ildṝ'''
|-
! 3rd
| anāmv'''oja''' || anāmv'''ænь''' || anāmv'''iruja''' || <small>''anāmv'''ilduja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildænь'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildṛja'''''</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan=3 colspan=6 style="text-align: center;" | ''No dual imperative forms''
|-
! 2nd
|-
! 3rd
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| anāmv'''immi''' || anāmv'''yasmi''' || anāmv'''irimmi''' || anāmv'''ildimmi''' || anāmv'''ildesmi'''|| anāmv'''ildrimmi'''
|-
! 2nd
| <small>''anāmv'''oše'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''irąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ilduše'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildruše'''''</small>
|-
! 3rd
| <small>''anāmv'''avija'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''aik'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''iroja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildoja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildaik'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildroja'''''</small>
|}
===The optative mood===
The optative mood also only conjugates in imperfective and perfective aspect. It uses a special stem, regular for almost all verbs, formed by adding ''-ūy-'' to the root plus thematic vowel. This means that, for thematic verbs, the marker is always ''-oy-'' (e.g. ''nāmvoyu''), while it is always ''-ūy-'' for athematic ones (e.g. ''drūyu'').
The imperfective aspect uses the present tense endings (but 3SG exterior has ''-e'' and not *-ē), while the perfective aspect uses the past ones (with ''-a'' instead of *-k for 3SG exterior).
Example (''nāmvake'' “to crush, press”):
* Imperfective: <small>(EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyu'', ''nāmvoyi'', ''nāmvoye'', ''nāmvoyasme'', ... <small>(INT)</small> ''nāmvoyiru'', ''nāmvoyiris'', ... <small>(CAUS EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyildu'', ''nāmvoyildi'', ... <small>(CAUS INT)</small> ''nāmvoyīldru'', ''nāmvoyīldri'', ...
* Imperfective: <small>(EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyau'', ''nāmvoyei'', ''nāmvoya'', ''nāmvoyaram'', ... <small>(INT)</small> ''nāmvoyirau'', ''nāmvoyirei'', ... <small>(CAUS EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyildau'', ''nāmvoyildei'', ... <small>(CAUS INT)</small> ''nāmvoyīldrau'', ''nāmvoyīldrei'', ...
The optative, when used together with ''dauditetilūyi'' ("please", itself the optative ''tilah''-form of ''daudike'' "to want"), typically has a polite imperative meaning - and is, as such, more commonly found than the imperative itself.
===The desiderative===
The desiderative ''junia'' uses a special stem, formed with reduplication of the root plus '''-s'''. The resulting stem conjugates as any root verb.
Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:
* Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs;
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-''';
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';

* '''ġ-''' as '''ġ-''', but in the root it becomes '''ɂ'''.
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''.
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-).
* Initial clusters which begin with '''s-''', '''ṣ-''', '''š-''', or '''v-''' use the first consonant which is not one of them (but '''šv-''' reduplicates as '''š-''');
* Verbs with ablautable vowels almost always have middle-grade ablaut (there are a few exceptions, such as ''khlu-''); '''ṛ''' reduplicates as '''a''';
* Inverse-ablaut verbs have the consonant of the unreduced root but the reduced vowel;
* Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial '''ɂ'''.
* Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.
Final added '''-s''' has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):
* '''-d-s''' and '''-dh-s''' both become '''-ts''';
* After voiced stops, '''-s''' becomes '''-r''' and aspirated stops lose aspiration. '''-j-s''' and '''-jh-s''' both become '''-jl''';
* '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ''';
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š''';
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''-lь''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-relь-'''.


Causative forms just add the causative endings, without further modifying the stem. The vowel augment in the perfect stem is short if the vowel of the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise long (e.g. ''nanāmvsute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmvsaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush"; ''kukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūkukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search")
In many of the northeastern and northwestern lands of the Inquisition, the analytic ''infinitive + daudike'' construction is used instead of the synthetic desiderative in almost any case.
Examples of desiderative stems are:

* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-
''
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-''
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-
''
* ''nilyake'' “to think”, root ''nily-'' → ''ni-nely-s'' → ''ninelš-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to do”, root ''tṛl-'' → ''ta-tarl-s'' > ''tatarelь-''
* ''valde'' “to open”, root ''vald-'' → ''v-uld-s'' > ''vults-''


A few verbs have completely irregular stems:
* ''jalle'' “to be”: ''jijāl-''
* ''lilke'' “to live”: ''lēlikṣ-''
* ''męlike'' “to give”: ''mimęñ-
''
* ''milke'' “to take”: ''mūṃchl-''.
===The necessitative===
The necessitative ''junia'' is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative; it uses a stem formed by reduplication, and adding '''-sū-''', with the saṃdhi changes as in the desiderative. There are a few differences in the reduplication:
* They have higher-grade or lenghthened vowel in the ''reduplication'' and not the stem;
* Verbs with non-ablauting vowels always have ''ī'';
* Inverse-ablauting verbs have ''va'' or ''ya'' as reduplication, followed by the root with the reduced vowel (''va-u-'' and ''ya-i-'' regularly become ''vo-'' and ''e-'')
The resulting stem is a regular vocalic stem.
Modifications in causative and perfect stems are also the same as in the desiderative ''junia''.
Examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pīpeitsū-''
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''kokhlusū-''
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-''
* ''valde'' “to open” → ''voltsū-''
===The potential===
The potential ''junia'' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and has a stem formed with initial reduplication. It is formed by adding '''-(e)nā-''' to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that ''-r-nā-'' becomes '''-rṇā-''' due to saṃdhi.
Examples: ''peithake'' → ''pepeithnā-'' ; ''gṇyauke'' → ''gagṇyaunā-'' ; ''nilyake'' → ''ninelyenā-''.
A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''.
The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte šergē'' - while the "can" sense may be rephrased with ''novake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte novē'' - or (less commonly) with the infinitive - e.g. ''dṛke novute''.
===The permissive===
The permissive ''junia'' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed with a reduplication with ''-ī-'' as the only possible vowel, except for verbs with a reduplicated labial consonant, which have ''ū'', and ''-ūd-'' after the root. The perfect stem always has a short vowel.
Examples: ''mišake'' → ''mīmišūd-'' > ''mīmišūdu'' "I am allowed to see", ''imīmišūdam'' “I was allowed to see”.
Bisyllabic roots which have as their second syllable an unstressed vowel between two consonants that may form an allowed cluster (thus sonorant-vowel-stop/fricative, except ''-m-velar'') lose this vowel while adding the suffix, e.g. ''nąroṃke'' > ''nīnąrmūd-''.
===Secondary moods: evidentiality and consequentiality===
The four secondary moods expressing evidentiality are all similarly formed, but with different stem additions. All of them are, historically, the result of grammaticalization of different verbs to the Proto-Lahob base stem form, i.e. without ablaut or any vowel change:
# The ''visual evidential'' is made by adding '''-yat-''' at the end of the stem, e.g. ''yųlyatē'' "it is being eaten (I see it)"; ''yųlyatāhai'' "they are [being] eaten (I see it)"; ''yųlyategde'' "(s)he eats (I see it)". The interior form has '''-iryat-''' (cf. ''yųliryatē''), the causative exterior '''-ildyat-''' (cf. ''yųlildyatē''), and the causative interior '''-ildiryat-''' (cf. ''yųlildiryatē'').
# The ''first inferential'', which refers to any non-visual inference that is probably true (often translatable with "apparently", "looks like"), is formed by adding '''-ann-''' at the end of the stem, e.g. ''yųlannē'' "it is apparently being eaten"; ''yųlannāhai'' "apparently they are being eaten"; ''yųlannegde'' "apparently (s)he eats". The interior form has '''-irṇ-''' (cf. ''yųlirṇē''), the causative exterior '''-ildan-''' (cf. ''yųlildanē''), and the causative interior '''-ildṛn-''' (cf. ''yųlildṛnē'').
# The ''second inferential'' has a similar function to the first inferential, but the situation is unlikely to be true (translatable e.g. with "might/apparently... but probably don't/doesn't"); it is formed by adding '''-āk-''' at the end of the stem, e.g. ''yųlākē'' "it is apparently being eaten, but probably not"; ''yųlākāhai'' "apparently, but probably not, they are being eaten"; ''yųlākegde'' "apparently (s)he eats, but probably not". The interior form has '''-irāk-''' (cf. ''yųlirākē''), the causative exterior '''-ildāk-''' (cf. ''yųlildākē''), and the causative interior '''-ildirāk-''' (cf. ''yųlildirākē'').
# The ''reported'' evidential marks something the speaker does not know first hand; it is formed by adding '''-adm-''' at the end of the stem, e.g. ''yųladmē'' "it is said that it is being eaten"; ''yųladmāhai'' "it is said that they are being eaten"; ''yųladmegde'' "it is said that (s)he eats". The interior form has '''-irdm-''' (cf. ''yųlirdmē''), the causative exterior '''-ildm-''' (cf. ''yųlildmē''), and the causative interior '''-ildṛdm-''' (cf. ''yųlildṛdmē'').
The two consequential secondary moods can actually be tertiary moods, as they can be added to evidential secondary moods too. They are formed in a similar way to evidentials:
# The consequential mood of cause is formed by adding '''-(n)ār-''' (<small>INT.:</small> ''-irāl-''; <small>CAUS. EXT.:</small> ''-ildār-''; <small>CAUS. INT.:</small> ''-ildṝl-'') to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnāru'' (given that I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsāri'' (given that you want to work, ...).<br/>
# The consequential mood of opposition is similarly formed by adding '''-uts-''' (<small>INT.:</small> ''-irts-''; <small>CAUS. EXT.:</small> ''-ilduts-''; <small>CAUS. INT.:</small> ''-ildṝts-'') to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnutsu'' (even if I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsutsi'' (even if you want to work, ...).
These forms can easily be formed also starting from evidentials, e.g. ''pūnannē'' → ''pūnannārē'' (given that, apparently, (s)he works, ...); ''pūnākek'' → ''pūnākutsek'' (even if, apparently, (s)he worked, but probably didn't, ...).


===Impersonal verbs===
===Impersonal verbs===
Line 1,464: Line 1,080:
The verb "to be" is suppletive as it uses various different stems (from Proto-Lahob ''*jaħħ'', ''*wi(w)ħ'', ''*ri'',  ''*jek'', and ''*gəna'') and irregularly — for example, the non-singular present forms are morphologically perfect.
The verb "to be" is suppletive as it uses various different stems (from Proto-Lahob ''*jaħħ'', ''*wi(w)ħ'', ''*ri'',  ''*jek'', and ''*gəna'') and irregularly — for example, the non-singular present forms are morphologically perfect.


Note that the indicative present is rarely used, as the copula is usually dropped in many cases; when used with the meaning of "to have" (e.g. ''lili mæn tulūɂa yambras jali'' "I have six pears" (lit.: I <small>TOPIC</small> six pears are)) it is considered better not to drop it, but it is often done nevertheless in common speech. It is also kept when used with the meaning "there is...".
Note that the indicative present, unless evidentially marked, is rarely used, as the copula is usually dropped in many cases; when used with the meaning of "to have" (e.g. ''lili mæn tulūɂa yambras jali'' "I have six pears" (lit.: I <small>TOPIC</small> six pears are)) it is considered better not to drop it, but it is often done nevertheless in common speech. It is also kept when used with the meaning "there is...".


Both future tenses are rarely used in colloquial and semi-formal speech, as the present tense of ''ndǣke'' (to become) is usually used as a replacement.
Both future tenses are rarely used in colloquial and semi-formal speech, as the present tense of ''ndǣke'' (to become) is usually used as a replacement.
Line 1,501: Line 1,117:
|}
|}


=====Other primary moods=====
The special evidential terminations are attached to a ''∅-'' stem.
 
=====Other moods and hues=====
The present tense or imperfective aspect of all other primary moods included as examples in this table:
The present tense or imperfective aspect of all other primary moods included as examples in this table:
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Imperative !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
! colspan=2 | Person !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| jalikṣam || gati || joyu || jijāliu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu
| gati || joyu || jijāliu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| jalios || gīsь || joyi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi
| gīsь || joyi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| jaliotīs || gī || joye || jijālie || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē
| gī || joye || jijālie || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| rowspan=3 | — || gīndu || joyasme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelāyǣ || jījalūtsme
| gīndu || joyasme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelāyǣ || jījalūtsme
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
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|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
| jalikṣumi || gīnam || joyįm || jijālįm || jājalšūyįm || jelęm || jījalūdįm
| gīnam || joyįm || jijālįm || jājalšūyįm || jelęm || jījalūdįm
|-
|-
! 2nd
! 2nd
| jalioris || gīnes || joyašin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin
| gīnes || joyašin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin
|-
|-
! 3rd
! 3rd
| jaliotīs || gī || joyāhai || jijāliāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai
| gī || joyāhai || jijāliāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai
|}
|}


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** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirāhe'' "they happen", and so on.
** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirāhe'' "they happen", and so on.
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".
====The honorific verb ''tilah''====
The verb ''tilah'' is the only Chlouvānem verb which does not have an infinitive form and is only used, attached to the ''an-form'' of a particular verb, as a marker of politeness. Its use dates from the early part of the 5th millennium, as an adaptation of Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi ''tiluru'' (to obey) and, in the past, of ''nuyuru'' (to serve). Apart from the lack of an infinitive, it has some particularities, namely that it only conjugates in the three basic moods (indicative, subjunctive, and optative). The ''juniai'' are not marked on ''tilah'' but on the true verb (always in its infinitive stem, modified according to the needed ''junia'') and it is also defective in lacking evidentials and consequentials (the form without ''tilah'' is used instead).
Its conjugation is mostly regular but has some particularities:
* The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tilęm - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...'').
* The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ilьd'': ''tilьdu, tilьdi, tilьde...'' interior ''tilьdru, tilьdri, tilьdre...''
* The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nināja - nineši - nīvē''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...'').
* The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlьr-'' (''nīlьram, nīlьres, nīlьrā...'') and the causative ''nīlьd-'' (''nīlьdam, nīlьdes, nīlьdā...'' ''nīlьdṛm, nīlьdṛs, nīlьdirā...'').
* The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...'').
* The subjunctive imperfective exterior is regular with the stem ''til-'' in the 1SG (''tilati'') and only ''t'' in the others (''tīsь, tī...''). The interior has ''tiler-'' and the causative ''tireld-''.
* The subjunctive perfective exterior always has the stem ''t-'' (''tēta, tēti, tēt...''); the interior has ''tilьr-'' and the causative ''tilьd-'')
* The optative is completely regular, with the (regular) stem ''tilūy-''.
All voice affixes come before ''tilah'', as if the ''an-form'' were only a verbal prefix. The honorific verb is not used where there already is a honorific suppletive verb (cf. ''moṣite'' "you (honorific) ask" (verb ''muṣke'') → ''pardhite'' (verb ''pṛdhake''), not *muṣṭetilši).
Note that roots ending in -Cv- and -Cy- undergo a special saṃdhi change that changes those in -Cu- and -Ci- before consonants (see first example below).
Examples of the use of ''tilah'':
* ''nāmvegde'' ((s)he/it crushes) → ''nāmutetilah''
* ''lå'' (I go, walk) → ''luntilah''
* ''pūni'' (you work) → ''pūntilši''
* ''pupūṃsįm'' (we want to work) → ''pupūṃstilęm''
* ''pū pūnī'' (if (s)he/it works) → ''pū pūntī''
In actual usage, ''tilah'' denotes respect towards the listener, and is used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way so, even in polite speech, not all verbs will use ''tilah'' - overusing it is a common error among people learning the language, not only foreigners but also young Chlouvānem people themselves.


===Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs===
===Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs===
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* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing:
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing:
** ''tatiākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
** ''tatiākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junia'' commonly used especially in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both, it can be omitted in the subjunctive verb:
** ''kulati(te) daudiute'' "I want to talk" (= ''šukiliute'')
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
** ''dratite šergē'' "I may do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' (less commonly ''infinitive'') + ''novake'' (to be able to): can X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential)
** ''dratite novē'' / ''dṛkenovute'' "I can do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''prigirake'' (to move backwards): to redo X, to do X again
** ''dhultepritegeru'' "I rewrite, I write again"


===Adverbs===
===Adverbs===
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