Carpathian verbs

Carpathian verbs reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called TAM. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as participles, infinitive and supine are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its arguments, which is called polypersonal agreement, while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").

Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — sēdē- (infinitive and aorist), sēdi- (imperfective) and sōd- (perfect); “remain” — lik- (infinitive), leik- (present), likā- (aorist) laik- (perfect).

Personal Endings

Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: athematic and thematic, the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:

		Athematic	Thematic	Athematic	Thematic	Athematic	Thematic	Athematic	Thematic
		Present		Aorist		Perfect		Optative
Singular	1st	-mi	-ū	-ùn	-ùn	-ai	-a	-(j)ēn	-(j)ain
	2nd	-si	-ei	-s	-is	-tai	-ta	-(j)ēs	-(j)ais
	3rd	-ti	-e	-∅/-a	-e	-ei	-i	-(j)ē	-(j)ai
Dual	1st	-wā́	-(e)wā́	-awā́	-(a)wā́	-wā́	-wā́	-(j)ḗwā	-(j)aĩwā
	2nd	-tā́	-(e)tā́	-atā́	-(a)tā́	-tā́	-tā́	-(j)ḗtā	-(j)aĩtā
	3rd	-tìs	-(e)tìs	-atìs	-(a)tìs	-tìs	-tìs	-(j)ḗtis	-(j)aĩtis
Plural	1st	-mès	-(e)mùn/-mà	-amè	-(a)mè	-mè	-mè	-(j)ḗmes	-(j)aĩma
	2nd	-tè	-(e)tè	-atè	-(a)tè	-tè	-tè	-(j)ḗte	-(j)aĩte
	3rd	-eñti	-añti	-iñ	-añ	-ínti	-ín	-(j)énti	-ajín

• In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is -mun and -aimun, while in Eastern Carpathian it is -ma and -aima.

Conjugation

The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the si- suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.

Present

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē/ī-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skeĩmi	stèrhū	turiū́	gidā́hū	zirhḗjū
	2nd sg	skeĩsi	stèrhei	turiéi	gidā́hei	zirhḗjei
	3rd sg	skeĩsti	stèrhe	tùrie	gidā́he	zirhḗje
Dual	1st du	skeitwā́	sterhewā́	turiewā́	gidewā́	zirhējewā́
	2nd du	skeistā́	sterhetā́	turietā́	gidetā́	zirhējetā́
	3rd du	skeistìs	sterhetìs	turietìs	gidetìs	zirhējetìs
Plural	1st pl	skeimès	sterhemà	turiemà	gidemà	zirhējemà
	2nd pl	skeistè	sterhetè	turietè	gidetè	zirhējetè
	3rd pl	skeiteñti	sterhañti	turiañti	gidañti	zirhējañti

The verb stèrhetei “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ster̃hetei. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: lìktei “to remain” — leĩkū “I remain”.

Aorist

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skeĩtun	stèrhun	turḗjun	gidā́sun	zirhḗjun
	2nd sg	skeĩs	stèrhis	turḗjis	gidā́sis	zirhḗjis
	3rd sg	skeĩ	stèrhe	turḗ	gidā́se	zirhḗ
Dual	1st du	skeitawā́	sterhawā́	turēwā́	gidāsawā́	zirhēwā́
	2nd du	skeitatā́	sterhatā́	turētā́	gidāsatā́	zirhētā́
	3rd du	skeitatìs	sterhatìs	turētìs	gidāsatìs	zirhētìs
Plural	1st pl	skeitamè	sterhamè	turēmè	gidāsamè	zirhēmè
	2nd pl	skeitatè	sterhatè	turētè	gidāsatè	zirhētè
	3rd pl	skeitiñ	sterhañ	turējañ	gidāsañ	zirhējañ

The verb gidā́tei “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix -s with the lengthening of the previous vowel: kurtéi “to build”, degetéi “to burn” — kúršanta “I built it”, dēšanta “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but tirimtéi “to shiver” — tirìmun “I shivered” (root aorist).

Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: bèrōsa “I’m picking it up” — birā́hansa “I picked it up”, but gidā́hū “I’m waiting” — gidā́sun “I waited”.

Imperfect

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skéitun	stirhán	turián	gidián	zirhḗjan
	2nd sg	skéis	stirhē̃s	turiḗs	gidā́s	zirhḗjēs
	3rd sg	skéi	stirhē̃	turiḗ	gidā́	zirhḗjē
Dual	1st du	skitē̃wā	stirhē̃wā	turḗwā	gidā́wā	zirhējḗwā
	2nd du	skitē̃tā	stirhē̃tā	turḗtā	gidā́tā	zirhējḗtā
	3rd du	skitē̃tis	stirhē̃tis	turḗtis	gidā́tis	zirhējḗtis
Plural	1st pl	skitē̃me	stirhē̃me	turiḗme	gidā́me	zirhējḗme
	2nd pl	skitē̃te	stirhē̃te	turiḗte	gidā́te	zirhējḗte
	3rd pl	skiteñ	stirheñ	turējeñ	gidāseñ	zirhējeñ

The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: "bē" + infinitive — bē skeistei “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: skitēwā “we two were reading” but skeitwā “we two are reading”.

Perfect

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skaĩtai	stàrha	turḗja	gidā́ha	zirhḗja
	2nd sg	skaĩstai	stàrta	turḗta	gidā́ta	zirhḗta
	3rd sg	skaĩtei	stàrhe	turḗje	gidā́he	zirhḗje
Dual	1st du	skaitwā́	stárwā	turḗwā	gidā́wā	zirhḗwā
	2nd du	skaistā́	stártā	turḗtā	gidā́tā	zirhḗtā
	3rd du	skaistìs	stártis	turḗtis	gidā́tis	zirhḗtis
Plural	1st pl	skaimè	stárme	turḗme	gidā́me	zirhḗme
	2nd pl	skaistè	stárte	turḗte	gidā́te	zirhḗte
	3rd pl	skaitínti	starhin	turḗjin	gidā́hin	zirhḗjin

In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: leikū “I remain” — laika “I have remained/I am preserved”; pasadḗdemi “I’m putting it down” — pasadṓdai “I’ve put it down”.

Future

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skeĩsiū	stèrhesiū	turḗsiū	gidā́siū	zirhḗsiū
	2nd sg	skeĩsiei	stèrhesiei	turḗsiei	gidā́siei	zirhḗsiei
	3rd sg	skeĩs	stèrhis	turḗs	gidā́s	zirhḗs
Dual	1st du	skeĩsiwā	stèrhesiwā	turḗsiwā	gidā́siwā	zirhḗsiwā
	2nd du	skeĩsitā	stèrhesitā	turḗsitā	gidā́sitā	zirhḗsitā
	3rd du	skeĩsitis	stèrhesitis	turḗsitis	gidā́sitis	zirhḗsitis
Plural	1st pl	skeĩsima	stèrhesima	turḗsima	gidā́sima	zirhḗsima
	2nd pl	skeĩsite	stèrhesite	turḗsite	gidā́site	zirhḗsite
	3rd pl	skeĩsianti	stèrhesianti	turḗsianti	gidā́sianti	zirhḗsianti

The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the desiderative aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: skeisiū “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: skitiēn “I am to read”.

Optative

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	1st sg	skìtiēn	stèrhain	tùriain	gidā́hain	zirhḗjain
	2nd sg	skìtiēs	stèrhais	tùriais	gidā́hais	zirhḗjais
	3rd sg	skìtiēs	stèrhai	tùriai	gidā́hai	zirhḗjai
Dual	1st du	skitiḗwā	sterhaĩwā	turiaĩwā	gidahaĩwā	zirhḗjaiwā
	2nd du	skitiḗtā	sterhaĩtā	turiaĩtā	gidahaĩtā	zirhḗjaitā
	3rd du	skitiḗtis	sterhaĩtis	turiaĩtis	gidahaĩtis	zirhḗjaitis
Plural	1st pl	skitiḗmes	sterhaĩma	turiaĩma	gidahaĩma	zirhḗjaima
	2nd pl	skitiḗte	stèrhaĩte	turiaĩte	gidahaĩte	zirhḗjaite
	3rd pl	skitiénti	sterhajín	turējín	gidāhín	zirhḗjin

In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.

Imperative

		Athematic verbs	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs	suffixed (ēj-stem)
		skeistéi “to read”	stèrhetei “to extend”	turḗtei “to hold”	gidā́tei “to wait”	zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age”
Singular	2nd sg	skitiè	stèrhi	tùri	gidā́hi	zirhḗ
	3rd sg	skeĩstu	stèrhie	tùrie	gidā́he	zirhḗ
Dual	2nd du	skistā́	sterhetā́	turitā́	giditā́	zirhḗjetā
	3rd du	skistìs	sterhetìs	turitìs	giditìs	zirhḗjetis
Plural	2nd pl	skistè	sterhetè	turitè	giditè	zirhḗjete
	3rd pl	skiténtu	sterhañtu	turiañtu	gidañtu	zirhḗjantu

• Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.

Inactive verbs

The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of autocausative verbs are supāteisin “to sleep”, dōmāteisin “to suppose”, wōjāteisin “to believe” and tinkāteisin “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The impersonal verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being snigetei “to snow”, zarētei “to dawn”, lītei. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):

	Impersonal			Autocausative
	e-stem verbs	ē-stem verbs	j-stem verbs	ā-stem verbs
	snigetéi “to snow”	zarḗtei “to dawn”	lī́tei “to rain”	supā́teisin “to sleep”
Present	sniñgi	zarḗ	lī́ji	supéimisin
Aorist	snìgā	zàriā	lìjā	supā́misin
Imperfect	snìgḗ	zàriḗ	lìjḗ	supḗmisin
Perfect	snìga	zària	lìja	supā́jamisin
Future	snìgis	zarḗs	lī́s	supā́smisin
Optative	snìgai	zàriai	lī́jai	supā́jaimisin
Subjunctive	snìge	zàre	lìje	sùpemisin

Object markers

One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the subject, and affected persons are objects (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The adjunct is not indicated.

Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:

Direct Objects

	1st	2nd	3rd
			animate proximate	animate obviate	inanimate proximate	inanimate obviate
Singular	-mi	-ti	-(j)i	-ni	-sa	-ta
Dual	-nū	-wū	-(j)ī	-nai	-sai	-tai
Plural	-nas	-was	-is	-nan	-sā	-tā

Indirect Objects

	1st	2nd	3rd
			animate proximate	animate obviate	inanimate proximate	inanimate obviate
Singular	mei-	tei-	ei-	nai-	sai-	tai-
Dual	nō-	wō-	ī-	nan-	san-	tan-
Plural	in-	us-	īn-	nei-	sei-	tei-

Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: eidṓdanta “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: turiū- “I hold” and turējun- “I held” become turiōsa “I’m holding it” and turējansa “I held it”.

Aspectual and deictic affixes

Carpathian verbs form lexical aspect using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:

• Suffixes, which make imperfective (progressive) or frequentative verbs from simple perfective verbs: nestei “to carry” — nasītei “to be carrying”, nasiōtei “to carry often”.
• A suffix, which makes inchoative verbs, from imperfective verbs: stahētei “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.
• Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, iterative verbs: peistei “to write” — kirtātei “to write” — nōkirtātei “to write down”, pakirtātei “to write several times (iterative)”.

Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. bēgetei “run”, eitei “go”, nestei “carry”, westei “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the pernestei per hapān “to carry through a river (once)” — pernasītei “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.

Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:

Suffix	3sg Present	Infinitive	Examples	Function	Notes
-na	-ne	-natei	kunnatei “to throw” limnatei “to get stuck”	Inchoative, momentaneous	The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".
-j	-je	-tei	mautei “to wash” nautei “to yearn”	Transitive imperfective Not productive.	The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".
-j	-ie	-tei	siltei “to send” nautei “to yearn”	fientive verbs.	Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.
-ēj	-ēje	-ātei	haujētei “to be aware” legētei “to lie (be situated)” bilētei “to be white”	Stative verbs, often continuous.	Sigmatic aorist. Deadjectival inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.
-ā	-āhe	-ātei	kējātei “to observe” taupātei “to stamp” harbātei “to work”	Denominative, frequentative, intensive.	Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.
-ō	-ōhe	-ōtei	wanōtei “to become violet”	deadjectival inchoative verbs.	Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.
-au	-auje	-autei	ōgautei “to gather berries” mīlautei “to endear”	Denominative progressive verbs.	The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.
-ī	-ei	-ītei	parsītei “to ask” kailītei “to cure” pirgītei “to fry”	Causative.	The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.
-jē	-iei	-ētei	parsītei “to ask” kailītei “to cure” pirgītei “to fry”	Causative.	The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.

Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: legetei “to lie down” — lingū “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: slūnautei “to be famous”, kurnautei “to prepare”.

Carpathian prefixes:

Prefix	Examples	Approximate meaning	Notes
ar-	arkaltei “to break apart”	“dis-”, “un-”.
at-	addōtei “to give back”	“from”, “back”.	Has a form ati- before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.
ap-	apeitei “to walk around”	“around”.	Western Carpathian has ep- instead. Has a form api- before consonants.
da-	dajeitei “to go to”	“towards”, “till”.
au-	aweitei “to walk between”	“between”, “at”.	Has a form aw- before vowels.
in-	ineitei “to enter”	“in”, “into”.
is-	ineitei “to enter”	“out of”.	Western Carpathian has iš- instead.
ni-	nijeitei “to descend”	“down”, “below”.
nō-	nōjeitei “to walk upwards”	“up”, “over”.
pō-	pōmintei “to recall”, pōjeitei “to come later”	“later”.	Some Western dialects have pā- instead.
pa-	pamintei “to remember”, panestei “to carry away”	“at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.	Has a form paj- before vowels
per-	perdōtei “to pass over”, pereitei “to cross”	“over”, “re-”, “through”.	Has a form pere- before a consonant cluster.
par-	pareitei “to walk along”	“along”, “completely”.	Has a form para- before a consonant cluster.
perei-	perijeitei “to approach”	“by”, “next to”.	Has a form perij- before vowels.
pirt-	pirtistātei “to contrast”	“against”.	Has a form pirti- before consonants.
ō-	ōjeitei “to almost reach”, ōsiausteisin “to be like a joke”	“Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.	Has the form ōj- before vowels.
sam-	sameitei “to walk together”	“together”.	Has a form sama- before a consonant cluster.
su-	sumētei “to dare”	“good”.
sun-	suntartei “to talk with someone”	“with”, “alongside”.
uz-	uzimtei “to obtain”	“at”, “onto”, “in return for”.	Western Carpathian has už- instead. Becomes us- before voiceless consonants.
zō-	zōjeitei “to walk from behind”	“behind”, “after”.	Western Carpathian has žō- instead. Becomes zōj- before vowels

Periphrastic formations

The original Proto-Indo-European subjunctive had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of būtei and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: būnta skeistei “I would be reading that”; būsta skeistun “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb būtei (subject endings only) are as follows:

Subjunctive

Singular	1st	bū́n
	2nd	bū́s
	3rd	bū́
Dual	1st	bū́wā
	2nd	bū́tā
	3rd	bū́tis
Plural	1st	bū́me
	2nd	bū́te
	3rd	bū́wen

In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: skeistumbū́ “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.

Participles

Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.

One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: paustīs perelektunīs “migrating birds”, wadījas nepatairānas “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: Akunan atihwerwā, meriā dangānas pagiledēsā. – “Having opened the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.

Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: skaunas kuramas “a house that is being built”, haiskas histas – “a question that has been asked”.

In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: laubīmas “liked” — laubīmesas “more liked” — laubīmimas “most liked”.