Aryan: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
No edit summary
Line 23: Line 23:
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).


==Phonology==
==Transitional Tables==
===Sounds===
 
====Consonants====
===Transitional Table of Aryan===
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |
! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan
! style="width: 66px; " |Labial
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar
! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
! p
! Voiceless
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup>
| *
| *
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! t
| *m
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>
| *n
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive
! k
! Voiceless
| *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>
| *p
| *t
|
| *k
| *kʷ  
|
| *ʔ
|-
|-
! Voiced
! b
| *b
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
| *d
|
| *g
| *gʷ
|
|
|-
|-
! Aspirated-
! d
| *p<sup>h</sup>
| *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
| *t<sup>h</sup>
|
| *k<sup>h</sup>
| *kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
|-
! Aspirated+
! g
| *b<sup>h</sup>
| *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
| *d<sup>h</sup>
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>
| *gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
|-
! Ejective
!
| *p’
| *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
| *t’
|
| *k’
| *kʷ’
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
!
! Voiceless
| *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
|
|-
| *s
! kʼ
|
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
| *x
| (*xʷ)
| *ħ
| *h
|-
|-
! Voiced
! ɓ
|
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup>
| *z
|
| *ɣ
| (*ɣʷ)
| *ʕ
| *ɦ
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Vibrant
! ɗ
! Voiceless
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup>
|
| *
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! ɠ
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup>
| *r
|}
|
 
|
===Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)===
|
 
|  
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|
! style="width: 66px; " |
|-
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
! rowspan=2 | Lateral
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
! Voiceless
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
|
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
| *
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
|-
! >*p
| p; pʰ
| p; f
| p
| p
| p
| h; w
| p;  pp
| p
| p / pt
| p
| ∅
| f; β
|-
! >*t
|
|
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
|
| *l
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! >*k
|  
|  
| x x
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Approximant
! Voiceless
|
|
|
| *j̊
|
|
| *ẘ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Voiced
! >*ḱ
|
| x x
|
|
|
|
| *j
|
|
| *w
|
|
|
|}
|
 
|
====Vowels====
|
|
|
|
|}


====Pitch Accent====
p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] f;
v, f[C 2]


===Meta-Segmentals===


====X====


====X====
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...


====X====
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
 
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
===Supra-Segmentals===
|-
 
! rowspan="3"| PIE
====X====
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
====X====
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
====X====
|- align=center
 
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
==Taxology==
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
 
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
===Desinencies===
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
====Affixes====
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
 
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
====Roots====
|- align=center
 
| <small>normal</small>
====Clitics====
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
 
| <small>normal</small>
===X===
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
 
|- align=center
====X====
!{{PIE|*p}}
 
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
====X====
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
 
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
====X====
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
 
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
===X===
| colspan="2" |p
 
|{{PIE|pt}}
====X====
|{{PIE|p}}
 
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
====X====
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
 
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
====X====
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*t}}
==Semantics==
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
 
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
===Phememes===
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
 
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
====Phones====
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
 
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
====Morphemes====
|{{PIE|t}}
 
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
====Phonemes====
|{{PIE|t}}
 
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
===Tagmemes===
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
 
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
====Semes====
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
====Taxemes====
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
 
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
====Sememes====
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
 
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
===Prosodemes===
|{{PIE|s}}
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
====Glossemes====
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
====Noemes====
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
 
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
====Oidemes====
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
===Transitional Table of Aryan===
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*k}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! p
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|-
|- align=center
! t  
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|-
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
! k
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
| *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|-
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
! b
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
|- align=center
|-
!{{PIE|*b}}
! d
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|-
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
! g
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
| {{PIE|b}}
|-
| {{PIE|pt}}
! pʼ
| {{PIE|b}}
| *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
! tʼ
|- align=center
| *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
!{{PIE|*d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! kʼ
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! ɓ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|-
|{{PIE|d}}
! ɗ
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup>
|{{PIE|d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
! ɠ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
| *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup>
|- align=center
|}
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
 
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
===Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)===
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
 
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
| rowspan="2"|k
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
!{{PIE|*g}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! >*p
|{{PIE|g}}
| p; pʰ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| p; f
|- align=center
| p
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| p
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| p
|ku
| h; w
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| p;  pp
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| p
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| p / pt
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| p
|{{PIE|qu}}
| ∅
|- align=center
| f; β
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
|-
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
! >*t
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="2"|p
| x x
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
|
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|-
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
! >*k
|t
|  
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| x x
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|d}}
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
! >*ḱ
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|  
| rowspan="2"|k
| x x
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
 
|{{PIE|g}}
p pt p ∅ f;
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
b [β] [C 6] f;
|- align=center
v, f[C 2]
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
 
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
 
|ku
 
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
 
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
|{{PIE|s}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*p}}
! {{PIE|*m}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| {{PIE|in}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| {{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[]}}-
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| colspan="2" |p
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t}}
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[]}}
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|n
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|t}}
| --
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
|{{PIE|t}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
! {{PIE|*n}}
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|n}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
|{{PIE|in}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*k}}
! {{PIE|*l}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|r}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
| {{PIE|il}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
! {{PIE|*r}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
| {{PIE|ir}}
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*b}}
! {{PIE|*y}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|}}
| {{PIE|b}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| {{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| {{PIE|b}}
|?{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|j}}
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*d}}
! {{PIE|*w}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
|{{PIE|d}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|}}-
|- align=center
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|-
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
 
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
Notes for table 1:
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
{{reflist|group=C}}
| rowspan="2"|k
 
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
===Consonant clusters===
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|]}}-
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|g}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|ku
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
!{{PIE|*}}
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="2"|p
|
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|
|{{PIE|pt}}
|
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
!{{PIE|*sr}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| r
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
| str
|t
| style="color:gray"| sr
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| (a)r
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| style="color:gray"| rh
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|{{PIE|d}}
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
!{{PIE|*tw}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| θβ
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| t
| rowspan="2"|k
| kʿ {{IPA|[]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| ttu, ddu
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| s-, -ss-
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| p?
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"| d
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| ?
|- align=center
| tu, du
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|
|ku
|
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| f
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| rowspan="2"| d
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
| style="color:gray"| dw
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
!{{PIE|*dw}}
|{{PIE|s}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| (e)rk
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| tu, du
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| b
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| style="color:gray"| tw
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| style="color:gray"| tw
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
|{{PIE|}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*tl}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*m}}
!{{PIE|*dl}}
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| ll
| {{PIE|in}}
|  
| {{PIE|m}}
|  
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|  
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
!{{PIE|*dn}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| nn, ṇṇ
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|  
|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|n
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|
| --
|
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*n}}
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| sp
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| style="color:gray"| šv
|{{PIE|n}}
| s
|{{PIE|in}}
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*l}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
| style="color:gray"| hv
|{{PIE|r}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"| z
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
|
| {{PIE|il}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|
|- align=center
|
! {{PIE|*r}}
|
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|
| {{PIE|ir}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*y}}
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|∅}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|?{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|{{PIE|j}}
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[]}}
|{{PIE|y}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*w}}
!{{PIE|*sw}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| xuu {{IPA|[]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|v}}
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
| kʿ {{IPA|[]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
| style="color:gray"| h
|{{PIE|i}}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
| s
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
| style="color:gray"| sw
|-
| style="color:gray"| sw
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
!{{PIE|*sp}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
| style="color:gray"| sp
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|f}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[]}}
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
Line 703: Line 672:
|
|
|
|
|-->
|-align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| style="color:gray"| sr
| zd
| r
| zd
| str
| zd
| style="color:gray"| sr
|  
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| st
| (a)r
|
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|
|  
|  
|  
| style="color:gray"| rh
| d
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| fr-, -br-
| st
| style="color:gray"| sr
| st
| str
| str
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| θβ
| zd
| style="color:gray"| tv
| zd
| style="color:gray"| tv
| zd
| t
|  
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
|
|
| sth
| f
|  
| rowspan="2"| d
|  
| style="color:gray"| dw
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| style="color:gray"| dw
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dw}}
!{{PIE|*st}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| (e)rk
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| tu, du
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
|
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| b
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| style="color:gray"| tw
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
| style="color:gray"| tw
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|
|{{PIE|s}}?
| sl
|{{PIE|sk}}
| kl, sl
|{{PIE|š}}?
|
|{{PIE|h}}
|
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
| tl
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
| kl
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| tl
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
!{{PIE|*sk}}
| ll
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|  
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 789: Line 765:
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 796: Line 772:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dn}}
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
| nn, ṇṇ
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|
|
|
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 812: Line 788:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
!{{PIE|*dt}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
| tt
| sp
| st
| style="color:gray"| sv
|  
| style="color:gray"| šv
|  
| s
|  
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
|
|
|st
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| st
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|  
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[]}}
|  
| style="color:gray"| wh
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
| ddʰ
|
| zd
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|  
| rowspan="2"| z
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
| t
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
| ddʰ
| zd, st
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
! {{PIE|*pt}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
| ft
|
| t?
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sw}}
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| xuu {{IPA|[]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| st
| style="color:gray"| sv
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| |
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|rowspan="3"|
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| h
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
| s
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
! {{PIE|*kt}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| xt
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|rowspan="2"| t?
|{{PIE|f}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
|{{PIE|f}}
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| style="color:gray"|
| ps
| spʰ
| || || || || || ||
|
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
|
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
|  
| st
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
|  
| st
|  
| st
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| zd
| ||
| zd
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| zd
| rowspan="2"|
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
|
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| sth
|  
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| <ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
|rowspan="2"|
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|rowspan="2"|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| || (ks)
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|sk}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|h}}
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
!{{PIE|*gs}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
| kṣ
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|  
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 999: Line 930:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
| kṣ
|
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,015: Line 946:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
| tt
| kṣ
| st
| ž
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,023: Line 954:
|
|
|
|
|st
|
| st
|  
| ks
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
| ss
|
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,042: Line 973:
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
|  
| t
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd, st
|
|  
|  
|  
| st
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
| ps
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,063: Line 994:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| kṣ
| ft
| š
| t?
|  
| style="color:gray"| pt
|  
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
| k
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| kt
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| kṣ
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|
| st
|  
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|  
| |
|  
|rowspan="3"|
|
|rowspan="2"|
|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|
|rowspan="2"|
| kt
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
| kṣ
| z
|
| ž
|
|
| tk
| tk/k
| khth
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,120: Line 1,042:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| kṣ
| ||
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
|  
| rowspan="2"|
|  
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|  
| rowspan="2"|
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| tk
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|
|- align=center
|  
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,157: Line 1,058:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
|  
| γž
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
| kts
|
|
|
| phth
|
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
-->
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
| ž
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|ä}}
|
|e, ʔe, i
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
| ks
|  
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
!{{PIE|*a}}
| kṣ
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|{{PIE|ā}}
|
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|- align=center
|  
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
|  
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
!{{PIE|*o}}
| kṣ
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
| ps
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| š
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|  
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| k
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|e}}
| kt
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
| s
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|  
|
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| kṣ
|
|
|{{PIE|o}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
| z
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
| ž
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|  
|a, ∅
|
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
| tk
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
| tk/k
|- align=center
| khth
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|  
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|ḫa
|  
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
| kṣ
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|  
|{{PIE|o}}
|  
|
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
| γž
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|  
|{{PIE|ě}}
|  
|{{PIE|ė}}
|  
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
| kts
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
| phth
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|{{PIE|ī}}
| s
|{{PIE|ē}}
|  
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|
|
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
 
-->
===Orthography===
 
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*ā}}
|- align=center
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[]}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|e, ʔe, i
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|∅
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*i}}
|
!{{PIE|*i}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
|
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|ḫa
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*ei}}
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|- align=center
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
!{{PIE|*ē}}
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>  
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ь}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|  
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|  
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
!{{PIE|*āi}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|
|
|
|ai
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|ae}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>  
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|ē, ai
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|oi}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ai}}
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
!({{PIE|*ai}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|{{PIE|ai}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
!{{PIE|*ēi}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}} > {{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|āi}}; {{PIE|ā(i)}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|ēi}}
|{{PIE|ī}}?
|
|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōi}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*ōi (*oei)}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ai}}; {{PIE|ui}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
|
|{{PIE|ju}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|e, ai}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|ai}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ōi}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|{{PIE|u}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ái}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*āi}}
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*eh₂ei}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|  
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|ai
|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|āi > ēi}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ae}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*u}}
!{{PIE|*au}}
!{{PIE|*u}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|ъ}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|y}}<ref group=V name=i>Before ''i'' in the following syllable.</ref>
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan=7|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}  
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=wa>Before ''wa''.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}; {{PIE|o}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh>Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable ([[Germanic a-mutation|''a''-mutation]]).</ref>
|
|{{PIE|y}}
|
|
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|  
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ū}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*uh₁}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ū}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ū}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}}; {{PIE|i}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|
|{{PIE|ū}}
|au
|rowspan=3 colspan="4"|{{PIE|ū}}
|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ȳ}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₂}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*uh₃}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
|{{PIE|ū}} or {{PIE|<sup>(w)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|mā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|mē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|mā}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*eu}}
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
!{{PIE|*eu}}, {{PIE|*h₁eu}}
|{{PIE|> }}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|au}} > {{PIE|ō}}
|- align=center
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ə̄u}}; {{PIE|ao}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
|{{PIE|ju}}
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|iau}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|oy}}
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|eu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ū}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ou}}
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|īe}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ou}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!{{PIE|*ou}},{{PIE|*h₃eu}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|u}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, au}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|ou}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|áu}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*au}}
!({{PIE|*au}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*h₂eu}}
|{{PIE|aw}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|{{PIE|au}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
!{{PIE|*ēu}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}} > {{PIE|au}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|āu}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|{{PIE|iau}}  
|
|
|{{PIE|e}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|ū}}?
|{{PIE|am}}
|
|{{PIE|iu}}
|{{PIE|ēo}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*ōu}}
!{{PIE|*}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|a}}
|
|au
|{{PIE|ō}}
|
|
|{{PIE|áu}}
|{{PIE|ēa}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
!{{PIE|*m̥}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|im̃}}; {{PIE|um̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel>In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.</ref>
|{{PIE|}}; {{PIE|}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|rowspan=10|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|än}}
|{{PIE|äm}}
|an
|a, un
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|em, am}}
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|um}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ym}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*m̥̅}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*mh₁}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìm}}; {{PIE|ùm}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ama}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₂}}
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
|{{PIE|> }}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|> }} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*mh₃}}
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!{{PIE|*m̥m}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|am}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ьm/ъm}}
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|im}}; {{PIE|um}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|}}; {{PIE|}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|em}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|am}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
!|{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ę}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|{{PIE|}}; {{PIE|}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|lь/lъ}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|än}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|an
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|al
|{{PIE|en, an}}
|{{PIE|la}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|un}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yn}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*n̥̄}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*nh₁}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìn}}; {{PIE|ùn}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ana}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₂}}
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
|{{PIE|> }} <ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|> }}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*nh₃}}
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*n̥n}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ьn/ъn}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|}}; {{PIE|}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|en}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|an}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*}}
!|{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*}}
!{{PIE|*}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|/}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|/}}
|{{PIE|il̃}}; {{PIE|ul̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|il, li; ul, lu}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|äl}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|al
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|la}}
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|ol}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|li}};<ref group=V name=VPM>Before a stop or ''m''.</ref> {{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ul; ol}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yl}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*l̥̄}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*lh₁}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial>In the neighbourhood of labials.</ref>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìl}}; {{PIE|ùl}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ala}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|al}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3|
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₂}}
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|> }}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|{{PIE|> }}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*lh₃}}
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|}}
|{{PIE|}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*l̥l}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьl/ъl}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|il}}; {{PIE|ul}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|al, la}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|el}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|al}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥}}
 
!{{PIE|*r̥}}
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
|{{PIE|r̥}}
|{{PIE|ərə}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|rь/rъ}}
|{{PIE|ir̃}}; {{PIE|ur̃}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ir, ri; ur, ru}}
|{{PIE|är}}
|ar, ur
|{{PIE|ra}}
|{{PIE|or}}
|{{PIE|ri}};<ref group=V name=VPM/> {{PIE|ar}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|aúr}} {{IPA|[ɔr]}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|ur; or}}<ref group=V name=nonhigh/>
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|yr}}
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*r̥̄}}
!{{PIE|*rh₁}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|īr}}; {{PIE|ūr}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|arə}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ìr}}; {{PIE|ùr}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ara}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ra}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|rā}}
|rowspan=3|
|{{PIE|rē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan="2"|{{PIE|rā}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₂}}
|{{PIE|rā > rē}}<ref group=V name=Attic/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*rh₃}}
|{{PIE|rō}}
|- align=center
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
!|{{PIE|*r̥r}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labial/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ьr/ъr}}
|{{PIE|ir}}; {{PIE|ur}}<ref group=V name=labvel/>
|{{PIE|ar}}
|
|
|
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|{{PIE|ar}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|}
==Phonology==
===Sounds===
====Consonants====
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.


! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial/> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal/> !! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut/>
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |
!colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
! style="width: 66px; " |
|}
! style="width: 66px; " |Labial
 
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar
===Consonants===
! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal
|-
! rowspan=2 | Nasal
! Voiceless
| *m̥
| *n̥
|
|
|
|  
|
|-
! Voiced
| *m
| *n
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plosive
! Voiceless
| *p
| *t
|
| *k
| *kʷ
|
|
|-
! Voiced
| *b
| *d
|
| *g
| *gʷ
|
|
|-
! Aspirated-
| *p<sup>h</sup>
| *t<sup>h</sup>
|
| *k<sup>h</sup>
| *kʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
! Aspirated+
| *b<sup>h</sup>
| *d<sup>h</sup>
|
| *g<sup>h</sup>
| *gʷ<sup>h</sup>
|
|
|-
! Ejective
| *p’
| *t’
|
| *k’
| *kʷ’
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! Voiceless
|
| *s
|
| *x
| (*xʷ)
| *ħ
| *h
|-
! Voiced
|
| *z
|
| *ɣ
| (*ɣʷ)
| *ʕ
| *ɦ
|-
! rowspan=2 | Vibrant
! Voiceless
|
| *r̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
| *r
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Lateral
! Voiceless
|
| *l̥
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
| *l
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Approximant
! Voiceless
|
|
| *j̊
|
| *ẘ
|
|
|-
! Voiced
|
|
| *j
|
| *w
|  
|
|}


===Vowels===
====Vowels====
===Phonotactics===
 
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
====Pitch Accent====
===Morphophonology===
 
===Meta-Segmentals===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
===Supra-Segmentals===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
==Taxology==
 
===Desinencies===
 
====Affixes====
 
====Roots====
 
====Clitics====
 
===X===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
===X===
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
====X====
 
==Semantics==
 
===Phememes===
 
====Phones====
 
====Morphemes====
 
====Phonemes====
 
===Tagmemes===
 
====Semes====
 
====Taxemes====
 
====Sememes====
 
===Prosodemes===
 
====Glossemes====
 
====Noemes====
 
====Oidemes====


==Morphology==
==Morphology==

Revision as of 17:17, 27 October 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Introduction

[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).

Transitional Tables

Transitional Table of Aryan

Aryan
p *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phh
t *thkh; *thh / *th / *thph
k *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth
b *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ
d *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db
g *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd
*pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ
*tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ
kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ
ɓ *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhh
ɗ *dhgh; *dhh / *dh / *dhbh
ɠ *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh

Transitional Table (from Aryan to Indo-European Languages)

Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lithuanian Albanian Armenian Hittite Tocharian Greek Latin Goidelic Gothic
>*p p; pʰ p; f p p p h; w p; pp p p / pt p f; β
>*t x x
>*k x x
>*ḱ x x

p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]


thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5]
p, pp p pt p f;
b [β] [C 6]
f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7]
t;
c [c] [C 7]
t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6]
th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8]
s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]
k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6]
h;
;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3]
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4]
k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9]
k k;
q [c][C 9]
kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9]
ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10]
qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11]
ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2]
t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]
d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3]
z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8]
c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8]
g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3]
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]
g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]
g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]
ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10]
u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]
b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*pʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2]
p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b
b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15]
b;
v / f[C 16]
*tʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7]
th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17]
d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15]
d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8]
j [dz];
z[C 2]
k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7]
kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8]
g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15]
g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7]
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12]
g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9]
g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9]
ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10]
f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13]
g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13]
g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2]
h;
[C 2]
š [s] s;
[ʂ]
h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20]
i s;
r[C 2]
s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6]
s;
r [C 6]
[ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n n n -- m [˜] n
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15]
n n;
ñ [ɲ]
n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2]
l /
ɫ
> ɣ]
l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2]
r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
[C 2]
?i i [j];
[C 2]
j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ]
normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7]
sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] [CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


-->

Orthography

Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] Old English[V 1]
normal umlauted[V 3]
*e *e, *h₁e a e je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] ä e, ʔe, i e i; [ɛ][V 5] e; eo[V 6] i; ie[V 6]
*a (*a[V 7]), *h₂e o a a ha, a ā ha, a a a æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] e; ie[V 6]
*o *h₃e o, a a a, e a o
*o a; ā[V 9]
[V 10] *h₁[V 10] i i, ∅ a, ∅ ā e a a, ∅
*h₂[V 10] a
*h₃[V 10] o
*- *h₁-[V 11] e (a?) a, ∅ e (o)
*h₂-[V 11] a ḫa a
*h₃-[V 11] a, ha o
, *eh₁ ā ě ė i o, ua a/e?; ā?[V 12] ē, e, i ē ī ē ǣ
([V 7]), *eh₂ a o [oː] a a/o? a, ah ā > ē[V 13] ā ā ō ē
, *eh₃ uo u e a/ā?; ū?[V 12] a, ā ō ā; ū[V 12]
*i *i i ь i i i; e[V 14] ä i, ī i i; [ɛ][V 5] i
*ih₁ ī i y [iː] i i ī ī ei [iː] ī
*ih₂ i
or (j)a?[V 15]
ī or (j)ā?[V 15]
*ih₃ ī or (j)ō?[V 15]
*ei *ei, *h₁ei ai > ē ai > ōi,
āi > aē[V 9]
ei; ie[V 16] i e ē ei ī ē
*oi *oi, *h₃ei ě ai; ie[V 16] e e, ai ē, ai oi ū oi ái ā ǣ
*ai (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei ai ae ai
*ēi *ēi āi > ai; ā[V 12] āi; ā(i)[V 12] i i ē ēi ī? ei [iː] ī
*ōi *ōi (*oei) y; u[V 12] ai; ui[V 12] e, ai ai ōi ō u[V 12] ái ā ǣ
*āi *eh₂ei ě ai āi > ēi[V 13] ae
*u *u u ъ u u u; y[V 17] ä u u u u; o[V 18] u; [ɔ][V 5] u; o[V 19] y
*uh₁ ū y ū y; i[V 12] u ū ū ȳ
*uh₂ u
or (w)a?[V 15]
ū or (w)ā?[V 15]
*uh₃ ū or (w)ō?[V 15]
*eu *eu, *h₁eu au > ō ə̄u; ao[V 9] ju iau oy e u eu ū ou iu ēo īe
*ou *ou,*h₃eu u au a o, au ou áu ēa
*au (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu aw au au
*ēu *ēu āu > au āu u iau e ū? iu ēo
*ōu *ōu a au ō áu ēa
*m̥ *m̥ a ę im̃; um̃[V 20] am a äm a, un a em em, am um um ym
*m̥̅ *mh₁ ā ìm; ùm[V 20] ama
*mh₂ mā > mē[V 13]
*mh₃
*m̥m *m̥m am ьm/ъm im; um[V 20] am am em am
*n̥ *n̥ a ę ; [V 20] an än an a en en, an un un yn
*n̥̄ *nh₁ ā ìn; ùn[V 20] ana
*nh₂ nā > nē [V 13]
*nh₃
*n̥n *n̥n an ьn/ъn ; [V 20] an an en an
*l̥ *l̥ ərə lь/lъ il̃; ul̃[V 20] al il, li; ul, lu äl al la ol li;[V 21] al ul ul; ol[V 19] yl
*l̥̄ *lh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìl; ùl[V 20] ala al
*lh₂ lā > lē[V 13]
*lh₃
*l̥l *l̥l ir; ur[V 22] ar ьl/ъl il; ul[V 20] al, la al el al
*r̥ *r̥ ərə rь/rъ ir̃; ur̃[V 20] ar ir, ri; ur, ru är ar, ur ra or ri;[V 21] ar aúr [ɔr] ur; or[V 19] yr
*r̥̄ *rh₁ īr; ūr[V 22] arə ìr; ùr[V 20] ara ra
*rh₂ rā > rē[V 13]
*rh₃
*r̥r *r̥r ir; ur[V 22] ar ьr/ъr ir; ur[V 20] ar ar ar ar
Trad. PIE Laryng. PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Arm. Alb. Toch. Hitt. Greek Latin[V 1] Proto-Celtic Gothic[V 2] normal umlauted[V 3]
Old English[V 1]

Phonology

Sounds

Consonants

Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Pharyngeal Glottal
Nasal Voiceless *m̥ *n̥
Voiced *m *n
Plosive Voiceless *p *t *k *kʷ
Voiced *b *d *g *gʷ
Aspirated- *ph *th *kh *kʷh
Aspirated+ *bh *dh *gh *gʷh
Ejective *p’ *t’ *k’ *kʷ’
Fricative Voiceless *s *x (*xʷ) *h
Voiced *z (*ɣʷ)
Vibrant Voiceless *r̥
Voiced *r
Lateral Voiceless *l̥
Voiced *l
Approximant Voiceless *j̊ *ẘ
Voiced *j *w

Vowels

Pitch Accent

Meta-Segmentals

X

X

X

Supra-Segmentals

X

X

X

Taxology

Desinencies

Affixes

Roots

Clitics

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Semantics

Phememes

Phones

Morphemes

Phonemes

Tagmemes

Semes

Taxemes

Sememes

Prosodemes

Glossemes

Noemes

Oidemes

Morphology

Correlatives

German:

dieser Mensch
dies-er Mensch
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person
"this" "person"
this person

Russian:

этот человек
эт-от человек
DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Latin:

iste homo
iste homo
DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

Greek:

οὗτος ἄνθρωπος
οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος
DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"this" "person"
this person

Aryan:

*tad dʰgʰā́m
*tad *dʰgʰā́m
DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE
"that" "person"
that person

The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <

  • h0e * eah0 *as *ats
    • pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
    • pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ

Syntax

Prosody

Sample text


Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "CC", but no corresponding <references group="CC"/> tag was found
Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "V", but no corresponding <references group="V"/> tag was found