Aryan: Difference between revisions
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! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Plural | ! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Nominative || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}} -∅{{ref|3|3}},-e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|6|6}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}} | | Nominative || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}} -∅{{ref|3|3}},-e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -∅{{ref|3|3}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|6|6}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|5|5}}, -er{{ref|7|7}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Accusative || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}<ref>3</ref>, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | | Accusative || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}} || -es{{ref|1|1}}<ref>3</ref>, -as{{ref|2|2}}, -e{{ref|4|4}} || -e{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|3|3}}, -ie{{ref|2|2}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Dative || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}} | | Dative || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}}, -e{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -em{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|4|4}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Genitive || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | | Genitive || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}{{ref|6|6}}{{ref|7|7}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} || -es{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|4|4}} || -er{{ref|1|1}}{{ref|2|2}}{{ref|3|3}}, -en{{ref|4|4}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{{note|3|3}} Declension of indefinite articles; | {{note|3|3}} Declension of indefinite articles; | ||
{{note|4|4}} Declension of adjectives with articles. | {{note|4|4}} Declension of adjectives with articles. | ||
{{note|5|5}} Declension of feminine nouns. | |||
{{note|6|6}} Declension of masculine nouns. | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== |
Revision as of 21:47, 28 October 2024
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.
Aryan | |
---|---|
*airáh0 | |
Pronunciation | [ai̯ˈrəʔ] |
Created by | Veno |
Date | 8000-6000 BP |
Setting | Caucasus Mountains |
Native speakers | - (2024) |
Pangaean Code
| |
Early form | Transitional Dialect
|
Introduction
[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
Transitional Tables
From the Codes to Aryan
Aryan | |
---|---|
p | *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh |
t | *thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph |
k | *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth |
b | *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ |
d | *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db |
g | *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd |
pʼ | *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ |
tʼ | *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ |
kʼ | kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ |
ɓ | *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh |
ɗ | *dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh |
ɠ | *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh |
From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lithuanian | Albanian | Armenian | Hittite | Tocharian | Greek | Latin | Goidelic | Gothic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>*p | p; pʰ | p; f | p | p | p | h; w | p; pp | p | p / pt | p | ∅ | f; β |
>*t | x x | |||||||||||
>*k | x x | |||||||||||
>*ḱ | x x |
p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | |||||||
normal | C+[j] [C 1] | normal | -C- [C 2] [C 1] | ||||||||||||
*p | p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] | p; f [C 4] | p | h; w [C 5] |
p, pp | p | pt | p | ∅ | f; b [β] [C 6] |
f; v, f[C 2] | ||||
*t | t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] | t; θ[C 4] | t | tʿ [tʰ] | t, tt; z [ts] [C 7] |
t; c [c] [C 7] |
t | s; tt/ss[C 5] | t | t | th [θ] | þ [θ]; d [ð]; [C 6] |
th; d; [C 6] | ||
*ḱ | ś [ɕ] | s | š [ʃ] | th [θ]; k[C 8] |
s | k, kk | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
k | c [k] | c [k] | ch [x] | h; g [ɣ] [C 6] |
h; ∅;[C 2] y [C 6] | ||
*k | k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ] [C 3] |
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7] x[C 4] |
k; č [tʃ]; [C 7] c [ts][C 9] |
k | k; q [c][C 9] |
kʿ [kʰ] | |||||||||
*kʷ | k; s; [C 7] q [c][C 9] |
ku, kku | p; t; [C 7] k[C 10] |
qu [kʷ]; c [k] [C 11] |
ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w [C 6] |
wh; w [C 6] | |||||||||
*b | b; bh [C 3] | b; β [C 12] | b | p | b | pt | b | b [b] | -[β]- | p | |||||
*d | d; dh [C 3] | d; δ [C 12] | d | d; dh [ð][C 2] |
t | ts; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
d | z [zd] > [z] | d | d [d] | -[ð]- | t | |||
*ǵ | j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] [C 3] |
z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; g[C 8] |
c [ts] | k | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
g | g | g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | k | c / k; ch[C 9] | ||
*g | g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7] gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | k | |||||||||
*gʷ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | b; d; [C 7] g[C 10] |
u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
b [b] | -[β]- | q [kʷ] | qu | |||||||
*pʰ | bh [bʱ] | b; β [C 12] | b | b; w[C 2] |
p | ph [pʰ] | pt | f;[C 14] b |
b [b]; b [β];[C 2] f [C 15] |
b; v / f[C 16] | |||||
*tʰ | dh [dʱ] | d; δ [C 12] | d | t | t; c [c] [C 7] |
th [tʰ] | tt/ss | f;[C 14] d; b [C 17] |
d [d] | -[ð]- | d; d [ð];[C 2] þ [C 15] |
d | |||
*ǵʰ | h [ɦ] | z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; d[C 8] |
j [dz]; z[C 2] |
k | k; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
kh [kʰ] | h; h / g[C 8] |
g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | g; g [ɣ];[C 2] g [x] [C 15] |
g; y / w[C 16] | ||
*gʰ | gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] [C 7] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | g; ǰ [dʒ] [C 7] | |||||||||
*gʷʰ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ][C 10] |
f;[C 14] g / u [w];[C 2] gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w;[C 2] gw [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w[C 2] | |||||||||
*s | s | h [h, x] | s | sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];[C 18] h[C 2] |
h; ∅[C 2] |
š [s] | s; ṣ [ʂ] |
h;[C 14] s;[C 19][C 15]/ ∅;[C 2] [¯] [C 20] |
i | s; r[C 2] |
s ʃ | -[h]- | s; z [C 6] |
s; r [C 6] | |
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | x [x][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | ||||||||||||
*m | m | in | m | m [m] | -[w̃]- | m | |||||||||
*-m [C 15] | m | ˛ [˜] | n | ∅ | n | n | -- | m [˜] | n | ∅ | |||||
*n | n | n; ˛ [˜] [C 15] |
n | n; ñ [ɲ] |
n | in | n | ||||||||
*l | r (dial. l) | r | l | l; ll [ɫ][C 2] |
l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] |
l | il | l | |||||||
*r | r/l[C 22] | r | r [ɾ]; rr [r][C 2] |
r | ir | r | |||||||||
*y | y [j] | j [j] | gj [ɟ]; ∅ |
∅ | y [j] | z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ [C 2] |
?i | i [j]; ∅ [C 2] |
∅ | j | y | ||||
*w | v [ʋ] | v [w] | v | v [ʋ] | v | g / w | w | w > h / ∅ | i | u [w > v] | f | -∅- | w | ||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
Notes for table 1:
- ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
- ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ a b After a vowel.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
- ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
- ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
- ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
- ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
- ^ a b c After n.
- ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
- ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
- ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
- ^ After u, r or before r, l.
- ^ Before a stressed vowel
- ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
- ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
- ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
- ^ rare
Consonant clusters
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | ||||||
normal | C+[j] | |||||||||||||
*sr | sr | r | str | sr | rr [r] | (a)r | š(ša)r ʃʃr | rh | n/a | fr-, -br- | sr | str | str | |
*tw | tv | θβ | tv | tv | t | kʿ [kʰ] | ttu, ddu | s-, -ss- | n/a | p? | t | þw | thw | |
*dʰw | dhv | ðβ | dv | dv | d | ? | tu, du | f | d | dw | dw | |||
*dw | dv | (e)rk | tu, du | b | tw | tw | ||||||||
*tl | sl | kl, sl | tl | kl | tl | |||||||||
*dl | ll | |||||||||||||
*dn | nn, ṇṇ | |||||||||||||
*ḱw | śv | sp | sv | šv | s | sk, š | n/a | qu [kʷ] | cu [kʷ] | Template:Transl [xʷ] | wh | |||
*ǵʰw | hv | zv | žv | z | ||||||||||
*ǵw | jv | q [kʷ] | qu [kw] | |||||||||||
*sw | sv | xuu [xʷ] | sv | sv | v, d[CC 1] | kʿ [kʰ] | normal dev. | h | n/a | su [sw] | s | sw | sw | |
*sp | sp | sp [CC 2] | sp | f | sp [CC 2] / pʿ [pʰ] |
normal dev. | sp [CC 2] | ? | sp | f | sp [CC 3] | |||
*sbʰ | spʰ | |||||||||||||
*sd | d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ | zd | zd | zd | st | d | -t- [d] | st | st | |||||
*sdʰ | dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh | zd | zd | zd | sth | -t- [d] | zd | d | ||||||
*st | st; ṣṭ[CC 4] | st [CC 2] | st | sht [ʃt] | st [CC 2] | normal dev. | st [CC 2] | s; tt/ss[CC 5] | st | st [CC 3] | ||||
*sḱ | ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] | s? | sk | š? | h | ?? č`; c`[CC 5] | normal dev. | sk; [CC 2] kh [kʰ];[CC 6] skh [skʰ] [CC 7] |
sc [sk] | sc [sk] | sk [CC 3] | sh [ʃ] | ||
*sk | sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] | sk, sč [CC 2] | normal dev. | ? | sk [CC 2] | normal dev. | ||||||||
*skʷ | norm. | squ [skʷ] | sq [CC 3] | |||||||||||
*t+t [tst] | tt; tth [CC 9] | st; sθ?[CC 10] | st | s | s? | zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] | ss? | st | ss | ss / st | ||||
*sǵ | jj | |||||||||||||
*sgʰ | jj[CC 8] | |||||||||||||
*dt | tt | st | st | st | s | ss | ss [s] | |||||||
*ddʰ | ddʰ | zd | d | t | ||||||||||
*dʰt | ddʰ | zd, st | st | st | ||||||||||
*pt | pt | ft | t? | pt | t | pt | pt | cht [xt] | ft [CC 3] | |||||
*ḱt | ṣṭ [ʂʈ] | št [ʃt] | st | št [ʃt] | kt | ct [kt] | ht [CC 3] | ght [t] [CC 3] | ||||||
*kt | kt | xt | t? | kt | ||||||||||
*kʷt | pt | ct [kt] | ||||||||||||
*ps | ps | ps | ps | s, ss | fs | ps | ||||||||
*ts | ts | |||||||||||||
*ḱs | kṣ | š | sh [ʃ] | ks | x [ks] | hs | x [ks] | |||||||
*ks | kṣ[CC 4] | xš[CC 4] | (ks) | |||||||||||
*kʷs | kʷs | ps | x [ks] | |||||||||||
*gs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*ǵʰs | kṣ | ž | ks | |||||||||||
*gʰs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷʰs | kṣ | ps | ||||||||||||
*tḱ | kṣ | š | k | kt | s | |||||||||
*tk | kṣ | xš | kt | |||||||||||
*dʰǵʰ | kṣ | z | ž | tk | tk/k | khth | ||||||||
*dʰgʰ | kṣ | tk | ||||||||||||
*dʰgʷʰ | kṣ | γž | kts | phth | s | |||||||||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
-->
Orthography
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | Old English[V 1] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
normal | umlauted[V 3] | ||||||||||||||
*e | *e, *h₁e | a | e | je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] | ä | e, ʔe, i | e | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | e; eo[V 6] | i; ie[V 6] | |||||
*a | (*a[V 7]), *h₂e | o | a | a | ha, a | ā | ha, a | a | a | æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] | e; ie[V 6] | ||||
*o | *h₃e | o, a | a | a, e | a | o | |||||||||
*o | a; ā[V 9] | ||||||||||||||
*ə[V 10] | *h₁[V 10] | i | i, ∅ | ∅ | a, ∅ | ā | ∅ | e | a | a, ∅ | |||||
*h₂[V 10] | ḫ | a | |||||||||||||
*h₃[V 10] | ∅ | o | |||||||||||||
*- | *h₁-[V 11] | ∅ | e (a?) | ∅ | a, ∅ | e (o) | ∅ | ||||||||
*h₂-[V 11] | a | ḫa | a | ||||||||||||
*h₃-[V 11] | a, ha | o | |||||||||||||
*ē | *ē, *eh₁ | ā | ě | ė | i | o, ua | a/e?; ā?[V 12] | ē, e, i | ē | ī | ē | ǣ | |||
*ā | (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ | a | o [oː] | a | a/o? | a, ah | ā > ē[V 13] | ā | ā | ō | ē | ||||
*ō | *ō, *eh₃ | uo | u | e | a/ā?; ū?[V 12] | a, ā | ō | ā; ū[V 12] | |||||||
*i | *i | i | ь | i | i | i; e[V 14] | ä | i, ī | i | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | i | ||||
*ī | *ih₁ | ī | i | y [iː] | i | i | ī | ī | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ih₂ | i or (j)a?[V 15] |
yā | ī or (j)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*ih₃ | ī or (j)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*ei | *ei, *h₁ei | ai > ē | ai > ōi, āi > aē[V 9] |
ei; ie[V 16] | i | e | ē | ei | ī | ē | |||||
*oi | *oi, *h₃ei | ě | ai; ie[V 16] | e | e, ai | ē, ai | oi | ū | oi | ái | ā | ǣ | |||
*ai | (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei | ai | ae | ai | |||||||||||
*ēi | *ēi | āi > ai; ā[V 12] | āi; ā(i)[V 12] | i | i | ē | ēi | ī? | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ōi | *ōi (*oei) | y; u[V 12] | ai; ui[V 12] | e, ai | ai | ōi | ō | u[V 12] | ái | ā | ǣ | ||||
*āi | *eh₂ei | ě | ai | āi > ēi[V 13] | ae | ||||||||||
*u | *u | u | ъ | u | u | u; y[V 17] | ä | u | u | u | u; o[V 18] | u; aú [ɔ][V 5] | u; o[V 19] | y | |
*ū | *uh₁ | ū | y | ū | y; i[V 12] | u | ū | ū | ȳ | ||||||
*uh₂ | u or (w)a?[V 15] |
wā | ū or (w)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*uh₃ | ū or (w)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*eu | *eu, *h₁eu | au > ō | ə̄u; ao[V 9] | ju | iau | oy | e | u | eu | ū | ou | iu | ēo | īe | |
*ou | *ou,*h₃eu | u | au | a | o, au | ou | áu | ēa | |||||||
*au | (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu | aw | au | au | |||||||||||
*ēu | *ēu | āu > au | āu | u | iau | e | ū? | iu | ēo | ||||||
*ōu | *ōu | a | au | ō | áu | ēa | |||||||||
*m̥ | *m̥ | a | ę | im̃; um̃[V 20] | am | a | äm | a, un | a | em | em, am | um | um | ym | |
*m̥̅ | *mh₁ | ā | ìm; ùm[V 20] | ama | mā | mē | mā | ||||||||
*mh₂ | mā > mē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*mh₃ | mō | ||||||||||||||
*m̥m | *m̥m | am | ьm/ъm | im; um[V 20] | am | am | em | am | |||||||
*n̥ | *n̥ | a | ę | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | än | an | a | en | en, an | un | un | yn | ||
*n̥̄ | *nh₁ | ā | ìn; ùn[V 20] | ana | nā | nē | nā | ||||||||
*nh₂ | nā > nē [V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*nh₃ | nō | ||||||||||||||
*n̥n | *n̥n | an | ьn/ъn | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | an | en | an | |||||||
*l̥ | *l̥ | r̥ | ərə | lь/lъ | il̃; ul̃[V 20] | al | il, li; ul, lu | äl | al | la | ol | li;[V 21] al | ul | ul; ol[V 19] | yl |
*l̥̄ | *lh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìl; ùl[V 20] | ala | al | lā | lē | lā | ||||||
*lh₂ | lā > lē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*lh₃ | lō | ||||||||||||||
*l̥l | *l̥l | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьl/ъl | il; ul[V 20] | al, la | al | el | al | ||||||
*r̥ | *r̥ | r̥ | ərə | rь/rъ | ir̃; ur̃[V 20] | ar | ir, ri; ur, ru | är | ar, ur | ra | or | ri;[V 21] ar | aúr [ɔr] | ur; or[V 19] | yr |
*r̥̄ | *rh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìr; ùr[V 20] | ara | ra | rā | rē | rā | ||||||
*rh₂ | rā > rē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*rh₃ | rō | ||||||||||||||
*r̥r | *r̥r | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьr/ъr | ir; ur[V 20] | ar | ar | ar | ar | ||||||
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | normal | umlauted[V 3] |
Old English[V 1] |
Phonology
Sounds
Consonants
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | Voiceless | *m̥ | *n̥ | |||||
Voiced | *m | *n | ||||||
Plosive | Voiceless | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | *ʔ | ||
Voiced | *b | *d | *g | *gʷ | ||||
Aspirated- | *ph | *th | *kh | *kʷh | ||||
Aspirated+ | *bh | *dh | *gh | *gʷh | ||||
Ejective | *p’ | *t’ | *k’ | *kʷ’ | ||||
Fricative | Voiceless | *s | *x | (*xʷ) | *ħ | *h | ||
Voiced | *z | *ɣ | (*ɣʷ) | *ʕ | *ɦ | |||
Vibrant | Voiceless | *r̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *r | |||||||
Lateral | Voiceless | *l̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *l | |||||||
Approximant | Voiceless | *j̊ | *ẘ | |||||
Voiced | *j | *w |
Vowels
Pitch Accent
Meta-Segmentals
X
X
X
Supra-Segmentals
X
X
X
Taxology
Desinencies
Affixes
Roots
Clitics
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Semantics
Phememes
Phones
Morphemes
Phonemes
Tagmemes
Semes
Taxemes
Sememes
Prosodemes
Glossemes
Noemes
Oidemes
Morphology
Lesson 1
German:
dieser Mensch dies-er Mensch DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person "this" "person" this person
Russian:
этот человек эт-от человек DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Latin:
iste homo iste homo DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
Greek:
οὗτος ἄνθρωπος οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Aryan:
*tad dʰgʰā́m *tad *dʰgʰā́m DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <
- h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ
Lesson 2
German
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nominative | -er[1][2] -∅[3],-e[4] | -e[1][4][5], -ie[2], -∅[3] | -es[1], -as[2], -∅[3], -e[4] | -e[1][3][6], -ie[2], -en[4][5], -er[7] |
Accusative | -en[1][2][3][4] | -e[1][3][4], -ie[2] | -es[1][1], -as[2], -e[4] | -e[1][3], -ie[2], -en[4] |
Dative | -em[1][2][3], -en[4], -e[6][7] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -em[1][2][3], -en[4] | -en[1][2][3][4][6][7] |
Genitive | -es[2][3][6][7], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] | -es[2][3], -en[1][4] | -er[1][2][3], -en[4] |
^1 Declension of adjectives without articles; ^2 Declension of definite articles; ^3 Declension of indefinite articles; ^4 Declension of adjectives with articles. ^5 Declension of feminine nouns. ^6 Declension of masculine nouns.
Syntax
Prosody
Sample text
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- ^ 3