Qino

Qino (native: Qino afka /ɠino afka/, traditional Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, modernized Arabic script: قن أفك, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. The phonology is largely inspired by Hadda. The syntax and verbal morphology are most similar to Saho-Afar.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic, Latin, or Ge'ez scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with stress indicated) is used for ease of reading.

Consonants

Traditional Arabic	"Modernized" Arabic	Latin	Ge'ez	IPA	Notes
ـأ أ	أ	'	አ	ʔ	Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب	ب	b	በ	b	Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels. May be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ.
پپپ پ	ڀ	bh	ጰ	ɓ	Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.
تتت ت	ت	t	ተ	t
ثثث ث	ث	th	ሠ	θ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج	ج	j	ጀ	d͡ʒ	Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ی/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ	ݧ	ny	ኘ	ɲ
چچچ چ	ڇ	jh	ጨ	ʄ	Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.
ححح ح	ح	x	ሐ	ħ
خخخ خ	خ	kh	ኀ	x ~ χ	Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د	د	d	ደ	d	Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ	ذ	dz	ዘ	ð	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر	ر	r	ረ	r	Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز	ز	z	ዘ	z	Occurs in loanwords.
سسس س	س	s	ሰ	s
ششش ش	ش	sh	ሸ	ʃ
صصص ص	ص	s	ሰ	s	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض	ض	lh	ፀ	lˀ	In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط	ط	dh	ጠ	ɗ	Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ	ظ	dz	ጸ	ð	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ	ڟ	rh	ጠ	ɾˀ	Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع	ع	c	ዐ	ʕ
غغغ غ	غ	gh	ቐ	ɣ ~ ʁ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ	ف	f	ፈ	f
ڥڥڥ ڥ	پ	p	ፐ	p	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ	ق	q	ቀ	ɠ	Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق	ڹ	ng	ጘ	ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ	ڠ	g	ገ	ɡ	Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک	ك	k	ከ	k
ݣݣݣ ݣ	چ	ch	ቸ	t͡ʃ
للل ل	ل	l	ለ	l
ممم م	م	m	መ	m
ننں ں	ن	n	ነ	n
ـو و	و	w	ወ	w
ـۋ ۋ	ڤ	v	ቨ	v	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه	ه	h	ሀ	h	May be used at the end of words to show a final stressed vowel.
ییی\ـے ی\ے	ي	y	የ	j	In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or vowelless /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.

Vowels

Traditional Arabic	"Modernized" Arabic	Latin	Ge'ez	IPA	Notes
ـَ	ـَ	a	አ	a
ـٜ	ـٖ	e	ኤ	e
ـِ	ـِ	i	ኢ፣እ	i
ـٗ	ـٗ	o	ኦ	o
ـُ	ـُ	u	ኦ	u
ـَا	ـَا	aa	ኣ	aː
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ	ـٖي٬ ـَيْ	ee	ኤ	eː
ـِے	ـِي	ii	ኢ	iː
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ	ـٗو، ـَوْ	oo	ኦ	oː
ـُو	ـُو	uu	ኡ	uː
ـْ	ـْ	C	እ	C	Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ	ـّ	CC	-	Cː	Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ	ـهْ	-V́ (or -Vh)	(ህ)	-V́	Used for a stressed word-final short vowel.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal/ Postalveolar	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	plain	m	n		ny /ɲ/	ng /ŋ/
	glottalized	[mˀ]	[nˀ]		[ɲˀ]	[ŋˀ]
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t		ch /t͡ʃ/	k		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d		j /d͡ʒ/	ɡ
	glottalized	bh /ɓ/	dh /ɗ/		jh /ʄ/	q /ɠ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	(th /θ/)	s	sh /ʃ/	(kh /x ~ χ/)	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	(v), [β ~ β̞]	(dz /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞]	(z)	[ʝ ~ j]	(gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞]	c /ʕ/
Approximant	plain	w	l		y /j/
	glottalized	[β̞ˀ ~ ʔʷ]	lh /lˀ/		[jˀ ~ ʔʲ]	[ɰˀ ~ ʔ]
Trill/Tap	plain		r
	glottalized		rh [ɾˀ]

Notes:

¹ ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

² Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

³ The implosives are heavily glottalized and may more accurately be represented [dˀ].

⁴ The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Prosody

Intonation

Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.

Stress

By default, primary stress falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is stressed. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. The exception is nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive, which act as if they ended in a vowel (e.g. Maxammad is pronounced Maxámmad, not Maxammád). A word may contain multiple stressed syllables, in which case primary stress falls on the final stressed syllable.

Phonotactics

• Syllable structure is (C)V(C)
• Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Epithetic consonants such as w and y are inserted.
• When a cluster of three consonants would occur, the epithetic vowel -i- is inserted. Alternatively, the consonant cluster can be separated with an "echo" vowel, sometimes with metathesis.

e.g. hurdá "he sleeps", hurditá / huruuddá / hudurtá "she sleeps"

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

• Between vowels:
  • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞]
  • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ]
• mbh, ndh, njh, nq → [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]
• -n- of 1st person plural:
  • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
  • r, l, lh + n → [rː, lː, lːˀ] (written rr, ll, llh)
  • b, d, j, g + n → mn, nn, jn [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
  • sh + n → ny [ɲː]
• -t- of 2nd person and 3rd person feminine, singulative:
  • bh, dh, lh, jh, q: t becomes dh (lh, dh + dh are written ldh, ddh)
  • b, d, g: t becomes d
  • j + t → jj
  • sh + t → ch /t͡ʃː/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (relativizer)".

• Primary cases:
  • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.
  • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
    • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a: -u - e.g. nama "person" → namu
    • Feminine/plural with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -i - e.g. nafa "soul" → nafi
    • Absolutive ending in other short, unstressed vowel: unchanged - e.g. shimmirti "bird (sing.)" → shimmirti
    • Absolutive ending in a long or stressed vowel: -n - e.g. Faadhumá "Fatima" → Faadhuman
  • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -í - e.g. nama → namí
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -t - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumat
• Secondary cases:
  • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -óo - e.g. nama → namoo
    • Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. shimmirti → shimmirtii
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -s - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumas
    • Independent form: oo
  • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"), "in regards to".
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadak
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. nama → namak
    • Independent form: ak
  • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadas
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s - e.g. nama → namas
    • Independent form: as
  • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadal
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. nama → namal
    • Independent form: al
  • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammadad
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. nama → namad
    • Independent form: ad
• Pseudo-cases:
  • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional, and in the present indicative the copula can be dropped entirely.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -e (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Maxammad → Maxammade, Maxámmaddha
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -dhe (declines as adjective), -dha (invariant; present only) - e.g. Faadhumá → Faadhumárhe, Faadhumárha
    • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), e (adjective declension), dhe (= dha + e; adjective declension)

e.g. Maxammadu nama / nama e / nama dha / nama dhe / name / namarha. "Muhammad is a person."

namiye "I am a person"

Number

The citation form is unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -ta, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, etc.

Determiners

Definite Article

The definite article precedes the noun being modified. It only declines in primary cases; other cases use the absolutive forms. Plural nouns use feminine articles.

Qino definite article

	Masculine	Feminine
Absolutive	ka	ta
Nominative	ku	tu
Genitive	ki	ti

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns

	Absolutive	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	ana	anu	kiisha	kiishí	kiishoo	kiishak	kiishas	kiishal	kiishad
2SM	ata	atu	kaaha	kaahí	kaahoo	kaahak	kaahas	kaahal	kaahad
2SF	ati	ati	taati	taatí	taatii	taatík	taatís	taatíl	taatíd
3SM	usa	usu	keesha	keeshí	keeshoo	keeshak	keeshas	keeshal	keeshad
3SF	ishi	ishi	teeti	teetí	teetii	teetik	teetis	teetil	teetid
1Ex	una	unu	keena	keení	keennoo	keenak	keenas	keenal	keenad
1Inc	anaani	anaani	kiina	kiiní	kiinoo	kiinak	kiinas	kiinal	kiinad
2P	ataani	ataani	siina	siiní	siinoo	siinak	siinas	siinal	siinad
3P	isaani	isaani	koota	kootí	kootii	kootik	kootis	kootil	kootid

Qino clitic personal pronouns

	Subject	Accusative 1	Accusative 2	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	an	yi	kii	yoo	yak	yas	yal	yad
2SM	at	ku	kaa	kuu	kuk	kus	kul	kud
2SF	at	tu	taa	tuu	tuk	tus	tul	tud
3SM	us	ka	keesh	koo	kak	kas	kal	kad
3SF	ish	ta	teet	too	tak	tas	tal	tad
1Ex	un	na	keen	noo	nak	nas	nal	nad
1Inc	anan	yin	kiin	yinoo	yinak	yinas	yinal	yinad
2P	atan	sin	siin	sinoo	sinak	sinas	sinal	sinad
3P	isan	tin	koot	tinoó	tinak	tinas	tinal	tinad
REF	–	is	–	isoo	isak	isas	isal	isad
REC	–	ol	–	oloo	olak	olas	olal	olad

Notes:

• When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
• Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oo, ak, as, al, and ad respectively).

Verbs

Class I: Suffix and Prefix Conjugations

Suffix Conjugation

Most consonant-initial verbs fall into this category. Example: sheeni "to bring".

Suffix conjugation

Infinitive					-́i					sheeni
Active Participle					-áa					sheenaa
Passive Participle1					-an-					sheenan-
	Present Affirmative2		Present Subordinate2		Pres. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative2		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.		Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-íno	sheeníno	-é	sheené	-íne	sheeníne	-́u	sheenu	-ínu	sheenínu
2S	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-ínto	sheeninto	-té	sheenté	-ínte	sheeninte	-́u	sheenu	-ínu	sheenínu
3SM	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-íno	sheeníno	-é	sheené	-íne	sheeníne	-́u	sheenu	-ínu	sheenínu
3SF	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-ínto	sheeninto	-té	sheenté	-inte	sheenínte	-́tu	sheentu	-intu	sheeníntu
1P	-ná	sheenná	-nó	sheennó	-ínno	sheeninno	-né	sheenné	-ínne	sheeninne	-́nu	sheennu	-ínnu	sheeninnu
2P	-taana	sheentaana	-toona	sheentoona	-intoona	sheenintoona	-teeni	sheenteeni	-inteeni	sheeninteeni	-́aa	sheénaa	-ínaa	sheenínaa
3P	-aana	sheenaana	-oona	sheenoona	-inoona	sheeninoona	-eeni	sheeneeni	-ineeni	sheenineeni	-́aa	sheénaa	-ínaa	sheenínaa

Notes:

¹ Conjugates as an adjective.

² The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their stress when non-final and lengthen in questions.

Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial verbs. Example verb: arki "to see".

Prefix conjugation

Infinitive					-i					arki
Active Participle					-áa					arkaa
Passive Participle					-an-					arkan-
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Pre. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.		Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S	-á	arká	-ó	arkó	-íno	arkíno	-é	arké	-íne	arkíne	-́u	arku	-ínu	arkínu
2S	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-íno	tarkíno	t-é	tarké	t-íne	tarkíne	-́u	arku	-ínu	arkínu
3SM	y-á	yarká	y-ó	yarkó	y-íno	yarkíno	y-é	yarké	y-íne	yarkíne	y-́u	yarku	y-ínu	yarkínu
3SF	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-íno	tarkíno	t-é	tarké	t-íne	tarkíne	t-́u	tarku	t-ínu	tarkínu
1P	n-á	narká	n-ó	narkó	n-íno	narkíno	n-é	narké	n-íne	narkíne	n-́u	narku	n-ínu	narkínu
2P	t-aana	tarkaana	t-oona	tarkoona	t-inoona	tarkinoona	t-eeni	tarkeeni	t-ineeni	tarkineeni	-́aa	árkaa	-ínaa	arkínaa
3P	y-aana	yarkaana	y-oona	yarkoona	y-inoona	yarkinoona	y-eeni	yarkeeni	y-ineeni	yarkineeni	y-́aa	yárkaa	y-ínaa	yarkínaa

Class II: Adjectival Conjugation

This used for adjectives and a few stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative. They each have a Class I counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: case "red" (inchoative: casoowi "to become red"). For the infinitive, passive participle, and imperatives/jussives, use the Class I forms.

Adjectival conjugation

Active Participle			-íi			casii
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Past Affirmative		Past Negative
1S	-iiye	casiiye	-iiyé	casiiyé	-iishe	casiishe	-iishé	casiishé
2S	-iite	casiite	-iité	casiité	-iiche	casiiche	-iiché	casiiché
3SM	-́e	case	-é	casé	-iishe	casiishe	-iishé	casiishé
3SF	-́e	case	-é	casé	-iiche	casiiche	-iiché	casiiché
1P	-iine	casiine	-iiné	casiiné	-iinye	casiinye	-iinyé	casiinyé
2P	-iitiini	casiitiini	-iitiini	casiitiini	-iichiini	casiichiini	-iichiini	casiichiini
3P	-iini	casiini	-iini	casiini	-iishiini	casiishiini	-iishiini	casiishiini

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

• The Class I forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. yarká "he sees", yarka nama "person who sees", yarkaa? "does he see?"

Simple Present

• Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoo "so that he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkinonoo "so that he does not see"

Simple Past

• Used for an action in the past.
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkíne "he did not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenas "because he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkinenas "because he did not see"

Imperative

• Used for a command in the second person.
• Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. arku "see!"
• Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkínu "do not see!"

Jussive

• Used for a wish, command, etc in the first and third person.
• Affirmative: haa + "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yarku "let him see!"
• Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkínu "let him not see!"

Syntax

Constituent order

SOV

Noun phrase

• Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
• Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase. If it does not end in a noun, an -n is added before case endings or non-clitic forms are used.

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

كل نموت ڢرنے شرڢكں شے حفوفک ألفطے طلتاں. ماں شے ضمير شينميں٬ إں أبلنں ألل ربدوں فباں

كل نموت فرني شرفكن شي حقوقك ألقطي طلتان. مان شي ضمير شينمين، إن أبلنن ألل ربدون قبان

ኩሊ ነሞቲ ፉረኒ ሸረፈክኔ ሺ ሑቁቀክ ኦል ቅጢ ጠለታነ። መነ ሺ ፀሚረ ሼነሜኒ፣ እን ኦቦሊነኔ ኦለል ሩብዶነ ቀባነ።

Kulli namooti furanii sharafakne shi xuquuqak ol qiddhii dhalataana. Maana shi lhamiira sheenameeni, in obbolínane olal rubdoona qabaana.

/ˈkul.li naˈmoːti furaˈniː ʃaraˈfak.ne ʃi xuɠuːˈɠak ol ˌɠiɗ.ˈɗiː ɗalaˈtaːna ˈmaːna ʃi lˀaˈmiːra ˌʃeːnaˈmeːni in ˌobːoˈlinane oˈlal ˌrubˈdoːna ɠaˈbaːna/

Gloss: All people.NOM free.PART dignity.ABL-and and rights.ABL each-other equal.PART born.3P. Reason and conscience give.PAS.3P, REL brotherhood-and each-other.COM live.SBJV.3P have.3P