Kämpya: Difference between revisions

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==Brief Description==
==Brief Description==


Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. It belongs to category 4 in Milewski's typology [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milewski's_typology] i.e. it uses the same marker (the clitic -ja) to mark both possessors and ergative subjects. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is split ergative, with pronouns having nominative accusative alignment, and the rest of the language being ergative. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness].


In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.
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/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.
/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation.


Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àkjàuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g.


/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).
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/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].
/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].


/à̤h àkjàuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàkjàuⁿ].
/à̤h àuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].


/dáʔh àkjàuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàkjàuⁿ].
/dáʔh àuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].




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| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn
|-
|-
| alone + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà
| alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà
|-
|-
| all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn
| all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn
|-
|-
| all + Genitive / Ergative clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà
| all + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà
|}
|}




== Morphology==
==Pronouns==


Being an isolating language, Kämpya only has a few morphological processes.
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".


In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:


===Pronouns===
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".
Tenses and aspects are marked on the (subject) pronoun rather than the verb (like Hausa). A sentence without a pronoun can thus be ambiguous as to when it happened. The 4 tenses are: Present Progressive (used for actions that are happening right now), Past Imperfect (also used for present habitual actions, or that are true in general), Perfect, and Future.


In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:
===Nominative Pronouns===


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person
! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person
|-
|-
| Present Progressive || áim / ámj- / òṵm || wé / wézw- / wḛ̀ || jó / józw- / jò̰
| Before a consonant || ái || wéi || jéi
|-
|-
| Past Imperfect || áu / ój- / ò̰ji || wéi / wéj- / wèḭ || jéi / jéw- / jèḭ
| Before a vowel || ój- || wéj- || jéw-  
|-
|-
| Perfect || áb / ábw- / ò̰b || wíb / wíbw- / wḭ̀b || jéb / jébw- / jṵ̀ⱱ
| Emphatic || òṵ || wèḭ || jèḭ
|-
| Future || óu / ál- / òṵ || wú / wúl- / wṵ̀ || jú / júl- / jṵ̀
|}
|}


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===Transitivity===
====Accusative Pronouns====


There is also a morphological process to derive transitive verbs from intransitive ones. It affects the onset of the stressed syllable. What exactly happens depends on the first consonant of the stressed syllable.
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, and are not marked for number. Here is a list of them:


1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


====Aspirated Consonants====
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/


For intransitive verbs where the stressed syllable begins with an aspirated consonant, the consonant loses its aspiration and <Vh> (where V is a high toned reduplication of the next vowel, except that only the first element of a diphthong is copied) is infixed immediately after it (and before any second consonant in the cluster). So from /pʰláuʔt/ - "float (intransitive)", we can derive /páˈhláuʔt/ - "to float (transitive)".
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


====Voiceless Nasals====
Reflexive: /se-/
 
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiceless nasal, then they behave similar to the aspirated consonants, losing their voicelessness and take the infix /Vh/ immediately after them e.g. /m̥â̰n/ - "to be correct" -> /máˈhâ̰n/ - "to make something correct".
 
 
====Unaspirated Obstruents====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with unaspirated /p/, /t/, /k/ or /s/, then it is aspirated e.g. /sjáuʔk/ - "to walk (intransitive)" -> /sʰjáuʔk/ - "to walk (transitive)", or /pjḛ̂/ - "to come loose" -> /pʰjḛ̂/ - "to loosen".
 
 
====Voiced Nasals and Approximants====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with a voiced nasal, then the transitive form is derived by making it voiceless e.g. /ˈnwḛ̂bò/ - "to be new" -> /ˈn̥wḛ̂bò/ - "to make new, to refresh", or /mjíʔŋ/ - "to rise" -> /m̥jíʔŋ/ - "to raise".
 
 
====Clusters of /h/ + Approximant====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with /h/ followed by /l/, /w/ or /j/, then they rearrange to become sequences of Approximant + /Vh/ e.g. /hwéʔg/ - "to be fun" -> /wéˈhéʔg/ - "to make fun", or /hljḭ̂ŋ/ - "to be possible" -> /líˈhjḭ̂ŋ/ - "to make possible".
 
 
====Approximants====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with an approximant (or sequence of /l/ + another approximant, then /h/ is inserted immediately before the approximant(s) e.g. /là̤ⱱ/ - "to laugh" -> /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh".
 
 
====Plain /h/====
 
If the stressed syllable begins with plain /h/, /á/ is inserted immediately before the /h/ e.g. /hàṳŋ/ - "to be old" -> /áˈhàṳŋ/ - "to age (transitive)".
 
 
====No Onset====
 
If there are no onset consonants in the stressed syllable, then /h/ is inserted e.g. /è̤/ - "to be cold" -> /hè̤/ - "to chill (transitive)".
 
 
====Other cases====
 
In other cases, /Vh/ is infixed immediately after the first consonant of the stressed syllable e.g. /ˈdò̤mì/ - "to rest (intransitive)" -> /dóˈhò̤mì/ - "to rest (transitive)".
 
 
===Reciprocal Voice===
 
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".
 
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /kâḭŋ/ - "to hold" -> /ká kâḭŋ/ - "to hold each other".
 
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
 
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. /ˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill" -> /méˈm̥wéʔɾè/ - "to kill each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make laugh" -> /lá ˈhlà̤ⱱ/ - "to make each other laugh".




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===Copula===
===Copula===


Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. If a pronoun is used, then tense can be marked on the pronoun e.g.
Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. e.g.
 
 
/jó ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jóˈsíʔtà]
 
2PS.PROG guardian
 
You are the guardian(s) (right now).




/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]
/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]


2PS.PST guardian
2PS guardian


You are / were the guardian(s).
You are / were / will be the guardian(s).




/jò̰ ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈsíʔtà]


2PS.PROG.EMP guardian
/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì]


'''You''' are the guardian(s).
2PS enemy


You are / were / will be the enemy.


/józw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jóˈzwḛ̂nèmì]


2PS.PROG enemy
/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì]


You're the enemy (right now).
2PS.EMP enemy


 
'''You''' are the enemy.
/jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jò̰ ˈḛ̂nèmì]
 
2PS.PROG.EMP enemy
 
'''You''' are the enemy (right now).
 
If there is no pronoun in the sentence, then tense is not marked e.g.




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/ˈḛ̂nèmì áˈlôṵn/
/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/


enemy alone
dog alone


The enemy is / was / will be '''alone'''.
The dog is / was / will be '''alone'''.




as well as
as well as


/áˈlôṵn ˈḛ̂nèmì/
/áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/


alone enemy
alone dog


The '''enemy''' is / was / will be alone.
The '''dog''' is / was / will be alone.




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====With Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====


The same tensed pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.
The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.


/jó kúʔn/
/jéi kúʔn/


2PS.PROG depart
2PS depart


You are setting off.
You are setting off.


Note that here TAM is marked (on the pronoun). So we can just as easily say:


/jú kúʔn/
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:


2PS.FUT depart
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jéi kúʔn/


You will set off
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS depart
 
And we can use the emphatic forms of the pronouns to say things like:
 
/jò̰ kúʔn/
 
2PS.PROG.EMP depart
 
'''You''' will set off.
 
However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jó/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jó ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say:
 
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jó kúʔn/
 
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS.PROG depart


You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
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or
or


/jó kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/
/jéi kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/


2PS.PROG depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from
2PS depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from


You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt.
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===Transitive Sentences===
===Transitive Sentences===


In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-ja/ e.g.
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.


/ˈkʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/


dog=ERG bite lizard
dog=ERG bite lizard


It was the dog that bit the lizard.
It was the dog that bit the lizard.
However, immediately after an open syllable with a stressed vowel, the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.
/ŋà̤=ɾu káiʔk gáʔɾ/
fish=ERG bite lizard
It was the fish that bit the lizard.




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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.
However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.


/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=jà káiʔk/
/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/


lizard dog=ERG bite
lizard dog=ERG bite
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The dog bit the lizard.
The dog bit the lizard.


The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ jà káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.
The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.


Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say  */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.




====Subject Pronouns====
====With Pronouns====


The tensed pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.
The nominative pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g.


/jó=káiʔk gáʔɾ/
/jéi=káiʔk gáʔɾ/


2PS.PROG.NOM=bite lizard
2PS.NOM=bite lizard


You are biting the lizard.
You are biting the lizard.
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As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.
As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.


/gáʔɾ jó=káiʔk/
/gáʔɾ jéi=káiʔk/


lizard 2PS.PROG.NOM=bite
lizard 2PS.NOM=bite


You are biting the lizard.
You are biting the lizard.
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====Object Pronouns====
When a verb takes an accusative pronoun as its object, it becomes intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.
 
There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, but are not marked for tense or number. Here is a list of them:
 
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/
 
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)
 
Reflexive: /se-/
 
However, using one of these pronouns makes the verb intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.


/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/
/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/
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You will be bitten by the dog.
You will be bitten by the dog.


Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=jà/ is ungrammatical here.
Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=zù/ is ungrammatical here.




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=====Emphatic Forms====
====Reciprocal Voice====


There are also emphatic forms of each object pronoun. These are the same as the pre-consonantal forms listed above, except that they are in Tone Class 2 e.g.
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".


1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mḭ̂/
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other".


1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lâ̰n-/
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".
 
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwò̤/
 
3PS: /swḭ̂-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /sḭ̂w-/ (before a word starting with a vowel)


Reflexive: /sḛ̂-/
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other".




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