Modern Phrygian: Difference between revisions

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====Latin orthography====
====Latin orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
<!--
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Α α''' || άλφα || [ˈalfa]
|-
| '''Β β''' || βέτα || [ˈved̥a]
|-
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
|-
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανου || [ˈemanu]
|-
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
|-
| '''Ζ̌ ζ̌''' || ζ̌έτα || [ˈʒed̥a]
|-
| '''Η η''' || έτα || [ˈed̥a]
|-
| '''Θ θ''' || θέτα || [ˈθed̥a]
|-
| '''Ι ι''' || γιώτα || [ˈʝod̥a]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Κ κ''' || κάππα || [ˈkapa]
|-
| '''Λ λ''' || λάμπδα || [ˈlambða]
|-
| '''Μ μ''' || μου || [mu]
|-
| '''Ν ν''' || νου || [nu]
|-
| '''Ξ ξ''' || ξι || [ksi]
|-
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανου || [ˈomanu]
|-
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
|-
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
|-
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίγμα || [ˈsiŋma]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίγμα || [ˈʃiŋma]
|-
| '''Τ τ''' || ταυ || [taf]
|-
| '''Υ υ''' || ούψιλο || [ˈupsilο]
|-
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
|-
| '''Χ χ''' || χι || [çi]
|-
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
|-
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [pʃi]
|-
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
|}
|}
The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|With caron !! colspan=3| As multigraph
|-
!before front vowel !! before back vowel !! word-finally or before consonant
|-
| σ̌ || σχ || σχι || σχ
|-
| ζ̌ || ζγ || ζγι || ζγ
|-
| ξ̌ || ξχ || ξχι || ξχ
|-
| ψ̌ || ψχ || ψχι || ψχ
|-
|}
-->
=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Consonants'''
! '''Letter'''
! '''Context'''
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! '''Examples'''
! '''Remarks'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''b'''
| after vowel or liquid
| [b̥]
| kitá'''b''' [ciˈta'''b̥'''] "book"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| kám'''b'''a [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"; e'''b'''damás [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
|
|-
| c
| everywhere
| [ts]
| pí'''c'''a [ˈpi'''ts'''a] "pizza"
|
|-
| č
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| '''č''éteres [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | d
| after vowel or liquid
| [d̥]
| pró'''d'''os [ˈpro'''d̥'''os] "first"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [d]
| án'''d'''ras [ˈan'''d'''ras] "(adult) man"
|
|-
| ď
| everywhere
| [ð]
| '''ď'''úra [ˈ'''ð'''ura] "door"
|
|-
<!--
| v
| everywhere
| [v]
| '''β'''εχ ['''v'''ex] "six"
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| γ
| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| [ʝ]
| '''γ'''εν ['''ʝ'''en] "yen"
|
|-
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])
| [ŋ]
| μά'''γ'''κο [ˈma'''ŋ'''go] "mango"; α'''γ'''νός [a'''ŋ'''ˈnos] "pure, chaste"
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
|-
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| [ɲ]
| α'''γ'''κινάρα [a'''ɲ'''ɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
|-
| everywhere else
| [ɣ]
| '''γ'''αλκός ['''ɣ'''alˈɡ̊os] "copper"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | γγ
| before front vowel
| [ɲ]
| ά'''γγ'''ελος [ˈa'''ɲ'''elos] "angel"
|
|-
| elsewhere
| [ŋ]
| ά'''γγ'''ουρο [ˈa'''ŋ'''uro] "cucumber"
|
|-
| γι
| before vowels
| [ʝ]
| μα'''γι'''ά [maˈ'''ʝ'''a] "yeast"
|
|-
| γγι
| before vowels
| [ɲ]
| πάρκκι'''γγι'''ους [ˈparci'''ɲ'''us] "parking (gen.)"
|
|-
<!--
| ει
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|-
| ζ
| everywhere
| [z]
| '''ζ'''εμελός ['''z'''emeˈlos] "man"
|
|-
| ζ̌
| everywhere
| [ʒ]
| βρου'''ζ̌'''ικιά [vru'''ʒ'''iˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
|
|-
<!--
| η
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|-
| θ
| everywhere
| [θ]
| π'''θ'''ουγά [p'''θ'''uˈɣa] "fold"
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| ι
| preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ɲ]
| μ'''ι'''α [m'''ɲ'''a] "one (f.)"
| <!--⟨ι⟩ remains a vowel in these positions if it has a diaresis and/or an accent (i.e. ⟨ϊ, ί, ΐ⟩).
|-
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| ιμάτ'''ι'''ο [iˈmat'''ç'''o] "cloak"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ʝ]
| τρ'''ι'''α [tr'''ʝ'''a] "three (n.)"
| [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
|-
| rowspan="7"| κ
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| [ɟ̊]
| κα'''κ'''οί [kaˈ'''ɟ̊'''i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
|
|-
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| [ɡ̊]
| κα'''κ'''ός [kaˈ'''ɡ̊'''os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
| after nasal before front vowel
| [ɟ]
| αγ'''κ'''ινάρα [aɲ'''ɟ'''iˈnara] "artichoke"
|
|-
| after nasal otherwise
| [ɡ]
| μάγ'''κ'''ο [ˈmaŋ'''ɡ'''o] "mango"
|
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| ί'''κ'''δις [ˈi'''ɡ'''ðis] "mortar"
|
|-
| otherwise before front vowel
| [c]
| '''κ'''ιττάπ ['''c'''iˈtab̥] "book"
|
|-
| everywhere else
| [k]
| '''κ'''ακός ['''k'''aˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | κκ
| before front vowel
| [c]
| δί'''κκ'''οι [ˈði'''c'''i] "discs"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [k]
| Μά'''κκ'''α [ˈma'''k'''a] "Makkah"
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| κι
| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| [ɟ̊]
| βρουζ̌ι'''κι'''ά [vruʒiˈ'''ɟ̊'''a] "Phrygian"
|
|-
| after nasal before a vowel
| [ɟ]
| άγ'''κι'''ο [ˈaɲ'''ɟ'''o] "cup"
|
|-
| otherwise before a vowel
| [c]
| '''κι'''ουριακό ['''c'''urʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
|
|-
| κκι
| before a vowel
| [c]
| ί'''κκι'''ο [ˈi'''c'''o] "horse"
|
|-
| λ(λ)
| everywhere
| [l]
| ά'''λ'''φα [ˈa'''l'''fa] "alpha"
|
|-
| λ(λ)ι
| before a vowel
| [ʎ]
| ζέ'''λλι'''α [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
|
|-
| μ(μ)
| everywhere
| [m]
| ζε'''μ'''ελός [ze'''m'''eˈlos] "man"
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| ν
| non-final
| [n]
| ό'''ν'''ομαν [ˈo'''n'''omã] "name"
|
|-
| final
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
| όνομ'''αν''' [ˈonom'''ã'''] "name"
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
|-
| νν
| everywhere
| [n]
| μά'''νν'''α [ˈma'''n'''a] "manna"
|
|-
| ν(ν)ι
| before a vowel
| [ɲ]
| χαλαππέ'''νι'''ο [xalaˈpe'''ɲ'''o] "jalapeño"
|
|-
| ξ
| everywhere
| [ks]
| '''ξ'''ούλο [ˈ'''ks'''ulo] "tree"
|
|-
| ξ̌
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
|
|-
<!--
| οι
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|-
| ου
| word-initial before a vowel or between vowels
| [w]
| '''Ου'''ίντζορ [ˈ'''w'''indzor] "Windsor"
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-
|-
| otherwise
| [p]
| '''π'''ρώτος [ˈ'''p'''rod̥os] "first"
|
|-
| ππ
| everywhere
| [p]
| κά'''ππ'''αρις [ˈka'''p'''aris] "caper"
|
|-
| ρ(ρ)
| everywhere
| [r ~ ɾ]
| κάππα'''ρ'''ις [ˈkapa'''r'''is] "caper"
| In free variation.
|-
| σ(σ)
| everywhere
| [s]
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [t]
| '''τ'''ος ['''t'''os] "the"
|
|-
| ττ
| everywhere
| [t]
| ά'''ττ'''α [ˈa'''t'''a] "father"
|
|-
| τζ
|
| [dz]
| '''τζ'''αν'''τζ'''άρα ['''dz'''anˈ'''dz'''ara] "mosquito"
|
|-
| τζ̌
|
| [dʒ]
| άν'''τζ̌'''αρος [ˈan'''dʒ'''aros] "messenger"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | υ
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [m]
| ενε'''υ'''νάνα [ene'''m'''ˈnana] "ninety"
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [f]
| τα'''υ''' [ta'''f'''] "tau"
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise
| [v]
| με'''ύ'''ος [ˈme'''v'''os] "mine"
|
|-
| φ
| everywhere
| [f]
| '''φ'''υσικά ['''f'''isiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| χ
| before front vowel
| [ç]
| '''χ'''εμικιός ['''ç'''emiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [x]
| '''χ'''άλβα [ˈ'''x'''alva] "halwa"
|
|-
| χι
| before vowel
| [ç]
| '''χι'''ούμορ [ˈ'''ç'''umor] "humour"
|
|-
| ψ
| everywhere
| [ps]
| '''ψ'''ουγά ['''ps'''uˈɣa] "mind"
|
|-
|ψ̌
| everywhere
| [pʃ]
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|
|--->
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.-->
=====Vowels=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Monophthong Vowels
|-
! Letter
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! Examples !! Remarks
|-
| a
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| '''a'''krós ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
| e
| style="text-align:center;" | [e]
| v'''é'''gos [ˈv'''e'''ɡ̊os] "bread"; v'''é'''na [ˈv'''e'''na] "hyena"
| Actually closer to [e̞].
|-
| ι
| style="text-align:center;"|[i]
| m'''i'''ďós [m'''i'''ˈðos] "wage"; mať'''i'''mad'''i'''gá [maθ'''i'''mad̥'''i'''ˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"; f'''i'''s'''i'''gá [f'''i'''s'''i'''ˈɡ̊a]; '''í'''r'''i''' [ˈ'''i'''r'''i'''] "children"; m'''í'''as'''i'''s [ˈm'''i'''as'''i'''s] "myiasis"
|
|-
| ο
| style="text-align:center;"|[o]
| '''ó'''n'''o'''man [ˈ'''o'''n'''o'''mã] "name"; pr'''ó'''d'''o'''s [ˈpr'''o'''d̥'''o'''s] "first"
| Actually closer to [o̞].
|-
| u
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| k'''ú'''ra [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
|
|}
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
The following falling diphthongs are possible: ''ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou''.
Vowels in hiatus may equivalently be pronounced as rising diphthongs provided that the first vowel is a high vowel.
=====Stress=====
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.
When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
<!--
<!--

Revision as of 17:39, 3 May 2022

Modern Phrygian (Native: βρουζ̌ικιά /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the Phrygian language.

Modern Phrygian
τα βρουζ̌ικιά ξ̌ώσσα
Pronunciation[ta vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a ˈkʃosa]
Created byShariifka

Introduction

Etymology

Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά vružigʲá < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά brugikā́ (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική pʰrygikḗ).

Features

  • PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
  • PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
  • PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
  • Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
  • Initial w- preserved (as v-) except before o.
    • New w also became v, or f after voiceless consonants (e.g. βαίνα véna "hyena" < ουαίνα wéna < ύαινα (h)úaina; τφω tfo "two" < τουω two < τύω túō).
  • nt > nn
  • Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
  • All labiovelars became plain velars.
  • Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
  • Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
  • In obstruent clusters (except for s + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
    • Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
    • This also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
  • Assimilation of s to following consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
    • /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
    • /f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
  • In obstruent + nasal clusters:
    • Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
    • Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/)
  • Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
  • Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
  • Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
    • Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
    • Final -n > nasalization, but -nn > -n

Phonology

Orthography

Note: In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.

Greek orthography

Alphabet
Letter Name IPA
Α α άλφα [ˈalfa]
Β β βέτα [ˈved̥a]
Γ γ γάμμα [ˈɣama]
Δ δ δέλτα [ˈðeld̥a]
Ε ε έμανου [ˈemanu]
Ζ ζ ζέτα [ˈzed̥a]
Ζ̌ ζ̌ ζ̌έτα [ˈʒed̥a]
Η η έτα [ˈed̥a]
Θ θ θέτα [ˈθed̥a]
Ι ι γιώτα [ˈʝod̥a]
Letter Name IPA
Κ κ κάππα [ˈkapa]
Λ λ λάμπδα [ˈlambða]
Μ μ μου [mu]
Ν ν νου [nu]
Ξ ξ ξι [ksi]
Ξ̌ ξ̌ ξ̌ι [kʃi]
Ο ο όμανου [ˈomanu]
Π π πι [pi]
Ρ ρ ρο [ro]
Σ σ ς σίγμα [ˈsiŋma]
Letter Name IPA
Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌ σ̌ίγμα [ˈʃiŋma]
Τ τ ταυ [taf]
Υ υ ούψιλο [ˈupsilο]
Φ φ φι [fi]
Χ χ χι [çi]
Ψ ψ ψι [psi]
Ψ̌ ψ̌ ψ̌ι [pʃi]
Ω ω ωμέκα [oˈmeɡ̊a]

The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.

With caron As multigraph
before front vowel before back vowel word-finally or before consonant
σ̌ σχ σχι σχ
ζ̌ ζγ ζγι ζγ
ξ̌ ξχ ξχι ξχ
ψ̌ ψχ ψχι ψχ
Consonants
Consonants
Letter Context IPA Examples Remarks
β everywhere [v] βεχ [vex] "six"
γ before front vowels ([e] or [i]). [ʝ] γεν [ʝen] "yen"
before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n]) [ŋ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋgo] "mango"; αγνός [aŋˈnos] "pure, chaste" This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç]) [ɲ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke" This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
everywhere else [ɣ] γαλκός [ɣalˈɡ̊os] "copper"
γγ before front vowel [ɲ] άγγελος [ˈaɲelos] "angel"
elsewhere [ŋ] άγγουρο [ˈaŋuro] "cucumber"
γι before vowels [ʝ] μαγιά [maˈʝa] "yeast"
γγι before vowels [ɲ] πάρκκιγγιους [ˈparciɲus] "parking (gen.)"
δ everywhere [ð] δούρα [ˈðura] "door"
ζ everywhere [z] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ζ̌ everywhere [ʒ] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
θ everywhere [θ] πθουγά [pθuˈɣa] "fold"
ι preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ɲ] μια [mɲa] "one (f.)"
preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel [ç] ιμάτιο [iˈmatço] "cloak" [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel [ʝ] τρια [trʝa] "three (n.)" [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
κ after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]). [ɟ̊] κακοί [kaˈɟ̊i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
after vowel or liquid otherwise [ɡ̊] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
after nasal before front vowel [ɟ] αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
after nasal otherwise [ɡ] μάγκο [ˈmaŋɡo] "mango"
before voiced obstruent [ɡ] ίκδις [ˈiɡðis] "mortar"
otherwise before front vowel [c] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
everywhere else [k] κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
κκ before front vowel [c] δίκκοι [ˈðici] "discs"
otherwise [k] Μάκκα [ˈmaka] "Makkah"
κι after vowel or liquid and before a vowel [ɟ̊] βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
after nasal before a vowel [ɟ] άγκιο [ˈaɲɟo] "cup"
otherwise before a vowel [c] κιουριακό [curʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
κκι before a vowel [c] ίκκιο [ˈico] "horse"
λ(λ) everywhere [l] άλφα [ˈalfa] "alpha"
λ(λ)ι before a vowel [ʎ] ζέλλια [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
μ(μ) everywhere [m] ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ν non-final [n] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"
final [-̃, ɰ̃] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
νν everywhere [n] μάννα [ˈmana] "manna"
ν(ν)ι before a vowel [ɲ] χαλαππένιο [xalaˈpeɲo] "jalapeño"
ξ everywhere [ks] ξούλο [ˈksulo] "tree"
ξ̌ everywhere [kʃ] ξ̌έκκια [ˈkʃeca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
ου word-initial before a vowel or between vowels [w] Ουίντζορ [ˈwindzor] "Windsor"
π after vowel or liquid [b̥] κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
after nasal [b] κάμπα [ˈkamba] "worm"
before voiced obstruent [b] επδαμάς [ebðaˈmas] "week"
otherwise [p] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ππ everywhere [p] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper"
ρ(ρ) everywhere [r ~ ɾ] κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper" In free variation.
σ(σ) everywhere [s] τος [tos] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
τ after vowel or liquid [d̥] πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
after nasal; before voiced obstruent [d] άντρας [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
otherwise [t] τος [tos] "the"
ττ everywhere [t] άττα [ˈata] "father"
τσ everywhere [ts] πίτσα [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
τσ̌ everywhere [tʃ] τσ̌έττερες [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
τζ [dz] τζαντζάρα [dzanˈdzara] "mosquito"
τζ̌ [dʒ] άντζ̌αρος [ˈandʒaros] "messenger"
υ after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant [m] ενευνάνα [enemˈnana] "ninety"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant [f] ταυ [taf] "tau"
after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise [v] μεύος [ˈmevos] "mine"
φ everywhere [f] φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
χ before front vowel [ç] χεμικιός [çemiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
otherwise [x] χάλβα [ˈxalva] "halwa"
χι before vowel [ç] χιούμορ [ˈçumor] "humour"
ψ everywhere [ps] ψουγά [psuˈɣa] "mind"
ψ̌ everywhere [pʃ] ψ̌έμαν [ˈpʃemã] "soul"
Vowels
Monophthong Vowels
Letter IPA Examples Remarks
α [a] ακρός [aˈɡ̊ros] "field" Actually closer to [ä].
ε [e] βέκος [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread" Actually closer to [e̞].
αι βαίνα [ˈvena] "hyena"
ι [i] μιδός [miˈðos] "wage"
η μαθηματικά [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics" In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. τρης [tres] (modern τρες) "three".
υ φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. κύγνος (modern κούγνος) /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
ει είρος [ˈiros] "child"
οι είροι [ˈiri] "children"
υι μυίασις [ˈmiasis] "myiasis" Very rare.
ο [o] όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name" Actually closer to [o̞].
ω πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ου [u] κούρα [ˈkura] "girl"
Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible:

Diphthongs
offglide→
nucleus↓ 		ι /i/ η /i/ υ /i/ ου /u/
α /a/ αϊ (άι) αη αϋ (άυ) αου
ε /e/ εϊ (έι) εη εϋ (έυ) εου
ο /o/ οϊ (όι) οη οϋ (όυ) οου
ω /o/ ωι ωη ωυ ωου

Vowels in hiatus may equivalently be pronounced as rising diphthongs provided that the first vowel is a high vowel.

When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.

A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.

A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.

When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.

When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Latin orthography

Alphabet
Consonants
Consonants
Letter Context IPA Examples Remarks
b after vowel or liquid [b̥] kitáb [ciˈtab̥] "book"
after nasal; before voiced obstruent [b] kámba [ˈkamba] "worm"; ebdamás [ebðaˈmas] "week"
c everywhere [ts] píca [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
č everywhere [tʃ] 'čéteres [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
d after vowel or liquid [d̥] pródos [ˈprod̥os] "first"
after nasal; before voiced obstruent [d] ándras [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
ď everywhere [ð] ďúra [ˈðura] "door"
Vowels
Monophthong Vowels
Letter IPA Examples Remarks
a [a] akrós [aˈɡ̊ros] "field" Actually closer to [ä].
e [e] végos [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread"; véna [ˈvena] "hyena" Actually closer to [e̞].
ι [i] miďós [miˈðos] "wage"; maťimadigá [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"; fisigá [fisiˈɡ̊a]; íri [ˈiri] "children"; míasis [ˈmiasis] "myiasis"
ο [o] ónoman [ˈonomã] "name"; pródos [ˈprod̥os] "first" Actually closer to [o̞].
u [u] kúra [ˈkura] "girl"
Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible: ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou.

Vowels in hiatus may equivalently be pronounced as rising diphthongs provided that the first vowel is a high vowel.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.

When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Phonological history

Morphology

Nouns

Pronouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

Particles

Numerals

Phrygian numerals
Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Collective
0 ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματένα ματενάνος, -α, -ο — —
1 ένας (εις), μια, ένα πρώτος, -α, -ο άπαχ μονάς, -άτους
2 τφω τφέτερος, -α, -ο τφις τφάς, -άτους
3 τρες, τρια τρίτος, -α, -ο τρις τριας, -άτους
4 τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις τσ̌ετράς
5 πίντζε πίντος, -α, -ο πίγκιάτζ̌ις πιντάς, -άτους
6 βεχ βέκθος, -α, -ο βεξάτζ̌ις
7 επθάν έπδαμος, -α, -ο εμμάτζ̌ις
8 οκθών όκδουος, -α, -ο οκθώτζ̌ις
9 ενιάν ένιανος, -α, -ο ενευνάτζ̌ις
10 τέκαν τέκανος, -α, -ο τεκανάτζ̌ις
11 ένεκαν ενέκανος
12 τφώτεκαν τφωτέκανος
13 τρίτεκαν
14 τσ̌ετέρτεκαν
15 πίντεκαν πιντέκανος
16 βέκθεκαν
17 επθάνεκαν
18 οκθώνεκαν
19 ενιάνεκαν
20 βίκιανι βικιοττός
21 ένας τσ̌ε βίκιανι
30 τριάνα τριαττός
40 τσ̌ετράνα
50 πιγκιάνα
60 βεξάνα
70 εμμάνα
80 οκθώνα
90 ενευνάνα
100 εκανόυν
200 τφακιάνιοι
300 τριακιάνιοι
400 τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι
500 πιγκιακιάνιοι
600 βεξακιάνιοι
700 εμμακιάνιοι
800 οκθωκιάνιοι
900 ενευνακιάνιοι
1000 ζέλλια
2000 τφω ζέλλιαι

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources

Notes

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