Falamu: Difference between revisions
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In this article, a circumflex accent is used for accented "front" vowels, while an acute accent is used for accented "back" vowels. Accented vowels of indeterminate frontness/backness are represented with a grave accent. | In this article, a circumflex accent is used for accented "front" vowels, while an acute accent is used for accented "back" vowels. Accented vowels of indeterminate frontness/backness are represented with a grave accent. | ||
===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
====Accent==== | ====Accent==== |
Revision as of 09:12, 19 May 2022
Falamu (native: [fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ]) is a Portuguese creole language with a high degree of Somali influence.
Falamu | |
---|---|
Boka Falamu | |
Pronunciation | [bɔ́ˑkɑ fɑlɑ́ˑmʊ] |
Created by | Shariifka |
Portuguese Creole
|
Introduction
Etymology
From early Falamu (nu) falámu "we (incl.) speak" (= modern Falamu é nu fála) < Portuguese (nós) falamos "we speak".
Phonology
Orthography
Note: In this article, the regular phonetic script is used with accents added for clarity. These accents are normally omitted in writing.
Consonants
Letter | IPA | Remarks |
---|---|---|
' | ʔ | Not used word-initially since words written with an initial vowel always have a preceding glottal stop. |
b | b | May be pronounced /β/ between vowels. |
d | d ~ ð | /ð/ between vowels or after /h/. |
dh | ɖ | Somewhat implosive. |
f | f | |
g | ɡ | May be pronounced /ɣ/ between vowels. |
h | h | |
j | dʒ ~ tʃ | Free variation |
k | k | |
l | l | |
m | m | |
n | n ~ ŋ | /ŋ/ syllable finally, /n/ otherwise. |
nh | ɲ ~ j̃ | Free variation |
r | r | |
s | s | |
t | t | |
w | w | |
x | ʃ | |
y | j |
The consonants m, n, l, g, r, d, b can be geminated between vowels, which is indicated by doubling them.
The consonants dh and nh are always geminated when between vowels.
The voiceless stops t, k are always aspirated.
Vowels
Letter | IPA | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|
"Front" | "Back" | ||
a | æ | ɑ | |
e | e | ɛ | |
i | i | ɪ | |
o | ɞ | ɔ | |
u | ʉ | ʊ |
Letter | IPA | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|
"Front" | "Back" | ||
ay | æi | ɑɪ | |
aw | æʉ | ɑʊ | |
ey | ei | ɛɪ | |
oy | ɞi | — | No "back" variant. |
ow | ɞʉ | ɔʊ |
Accented vowels are often partially lengthened in the following situations:
- Monophthong vowels in open syllables;
- Monophthong vowels in word-final syllables;
- Word-final diphthong vowels.
There are also true long vowels indicated by doubling the vowel letter of a monophthong (e.g. aa) or the nucleus of a diphthong (e.g. aay). If a word contains a true long vowel, an other accented short vowel in the same word is not lengthened.
A word cannot begin in a vowel. Instead, a word written with an initial vowel is pronounced with a preceding glottal stop.
Each vowel has a "front" and "back" variety. This is the basis of vowel harmony.
In this article, a circumflex accent is used for accented "front" vowels, while an acute accent is used for accented "back" vowels. Accented vowels of indeterminate frontness/backness are represented with a grave accent.
Prosody
Accent
- Pitch accent
Intonation
Phonotactics
- Syllable structure: CV(C) - where V is a vowel or diphthong
- No consonant clusters except at syllable boundaries.
Morphophonology
Phonological history
Portuguese | Falamu | |
---|---|---|
Grapheme | Environment | |
ch | all | j |
j | initial | |
g | initial before e/i | |
di | unstressed before vowels | |
ti | ||
x | all as /ʃ/ | x |
j | non-initial | |
g | non-initial before e/i | |
v | all | b |
p | ||
b | ||
s | all | s |
ss | ||
z | ||
ç | ||
c | before e/i | |
sc | ||
lh | all | dh |
Morphology
Pronouns
Person, Number | Independent | Clitic | Possessive | Remarks | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strong | Weak | Strong | Weak | |||
1S | amî | mî | mi | dimî | dimi | |
2S | abô | bô | bu | dibô | dibu | |
3SM | êli | êli | li | dêli | dili | |
3SF | êla | êla | la | dêla | dila | |
1PI | anô | nô | nu | dinô | dinu | |
1PE | anôs | nôs | nus | dinôs | dinus | |
2P | abôs | bôs | bus | dibôs | dibus | |
3P | êlis | êlis | lis | dêlis | dilis | |
Reflexive | asî | sî | si | — | — | Reflexive when used as an object. |
Impersonal | — | — | si | — | — | Impersonal when used as a subject. |
Nouns
Plural
The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding -s (after a vowel or diphthong) or -is (after a consonant). Word-final -n becomes -nh- when -is is added.
Examples:
- ódhu "eye" -> ódhus "eyes"
- dêd "finger, toe" -> dêdis "fingers, toes"
- món "hand, arm" -> mónhis "hands, arms"
Some nouns have irregular plurals.
Examples:
- beni'aâdan "human" -> aadâmi "humanity"
- This is a collective noun, meaning it takes singular agreement. Colloquially, it may instead take plural agreement.
- bisó "person" -> jênti "people"
- Collective (as aadâmi).
- mûslin "Muslim" -> muslimîn "Muslims"
Nouns are generally used in the singular when used with numerals.
Verbs
Verb stems
Form | Formation | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | Base stem with final accent | falá "(to) speak" | |
Present | Base stem with penultimate accent | fála "speak(s)" | The accent is final in monosyllabic verbs. |
Past | Infinitive + -ba | falába "spoke" | |
Passive participle | Infinitive + -d | falád "spoken" |
Irregular verbs:
Infinitive | Present stem | Past stem | Meaning | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
sê | é ~ sê | éra | "to be" | When é is used as the present, it falls before the complement and no clitic subject pronouns are used. E.g. êla é mudhêr. ≈ mudhêr éki la sê. ≈ kôs la sê mudhêr. "she is a woman." |
tê | tên | tênha | "to have" | |
bî | bîn | bînha | "to come" | |
bô | bôn | bônha | "to put" |
Verb tenses
Form | Formation | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Simple present | Present stem | é la fála "she speaks"; fála! "speak!" | Also used for imperative affirmative. |
Present prospective/subjunctive | Infinitive | é mi falá "I'll speak"; ki mi falá "that I speak"; mi ná falá "I do not speak"; ná falá! "do not speak!" | Also used for present negative and imperative negative. |
Present progressive | tá + infinitive | é bu tá falá "you (sg.) are speaking" | |
Simple past | Past stem | é nus falába "we (excl.) spoke" | |
Past progressive | tá + past | é nu tá falába "we (incl.) were speaking" | |
Past remote | já + past | é li já falába "he spoke (a long time ago)" | |
Future | kére + infinitive | é bu kére falá "you will speak" | kére is the present tense of keré "to want" |
Future subjunctive | keré + infinitive | ki bu keré falá "that you will speak" | |
Jussive | ád + Infinitive | mi ád falá "I should speak" |
Notes:
- As the table shows, keré "to want" + infinitive is used to form the future. In order to express a desire, a subjunctive phrase is used. For example:
- é mi kére falá "I will speak" (lit. "I want speak") , versus
- kôs mi kére ki mi falá or ki mi falá é mi kére "I want to speak" (lit. "I want that I speak")
Voice
Pseudopassive is formed with the impersonal subject pronoun si.
Derived verbs
- Middle: add -se to stem - e.g. labá "to wash" -> labasé "to wash oneself, to wash for oneself"
- Detransitive: add -du to stem - e.g. labá "to wash" -> labadú "to become washed"
- While this is technically a passive form, this is generally used when the action occurred without intent. If there is intent involved, use the impersonal pseudopassive instead.
- Trasitivized/Causative 1: add -fa to stem - e.g. durmî "to sleep" -> durmifâ "to put to sleep"
- Usually used with intransitive verbs.
- This can be combined with the middle to form -fase - e.g. kosê "to cook (intr.)" -> kosefâ "to cook (tr.)" -> kosefasê "to cook for oneself"
- Causitive 2: add -da to stem - e.g. komê "to eat" -> komedâ "to give to eat"
- Usually used with transitive verbs, and often when someone is being "caused" to do something.
- This can be combined with the middle to form -dase.
Particles
Verbal focus particles
- é: used to form main clauses.
- Used when there is no independent object or emphasized subject.
- Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. é mi kôme. "I eat."
- "Independent object" refers to a direct or indirect object that is not a clitic pronoun, while "emphasized subject" refers to a subject that has extra emphasis placed upon it in such a way that English would use a copular phrase.
- é can contract with the subject pronoun, in which case it takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. êmi kôme. "I eat."
- é is not used in negative sentences - e.g. ná mi komê.' "I do not eat.".
- Note that any explicit subject (i.e. any subject other than a clitic pronoun) is placed before the focus particle - e.g. amî é mi komêba. "[As for] me, I ate."; Úmar é li komêba. "Omar ate."
- éki: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the independent object or emphasized subject is placed before the verb.
- Comes after the relevant object/subject - e.g. komîda éki mi kôme. "I eat food./Food [is what] I eat."; Úmar éki komîda kôme. "[It is] Omar [who] eats food."
- éki can contract with a following subject pronoun (if applicable), in which case the -ki- is dropped and e- takes the frontness/backness of the verb - e.g. komîda émi kôme. "I eat food."
Note that this is identical to the contraction of é. - éki is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. komîda ná mi komê. "I do not eat food.".
However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. Úmar éki komîda ná komê. "[It is] Omar [who] does not eat food."
- kôs: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the independent object is placed after the verb.
- Comes before subject pronoun - e.g. Úmar kôs li kôme komîda. "Omar eats food."
- kôs is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. Úmar ná li komê komîda. "Omar does not eat food."
However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. Úmar kôs li ná komê komîda. "[That which] Omar does not eat [is] food."
- kôski: used to form main clauses.
- Used when the emphasized subject is placed after the verb.
- Comes before verb and any clitic object pronouns - e.g. komîda kôski kôme Úmar. "[The one who] eats food [is] Omar."
- kôski is usually not used in negative sentences - e.g. komîda ná li komê Úmar. "Omar does not eat food."
However, it may be used for extra emphasis - e.g. komîda kôski ná kôme Úmar. "[The one who] does not eat food [is] Omar."
Interrogative pronouns
- kôs: what
- ûndi, lugaké: where
- moké: how
- kén: who
- kán: when
When used in a sentence, interrogative pronouns are followed by the focus particle éki.
Examples:
- Kôs éki bu tá komê? "What are you eating?"
- Kén éki li bêba? "Who did he see?"
- Kán éki lis bî? "When are they coming?"
- Ûndi éki lis nu bêba? "Where did they see us?"
Interrogative clitic
- kè: "which"
- Comes after word being modified
Negation particles
- ná: negation.
- Comes before the clitic subject pronoun of the negated verb (if any), except when used with focus particles, in which case it comes after the clitic subject pronoun (if any). In both cases, it comes before any clitic object pronouns.
- In summary:
- No focus particle: ná + (clitic subject) + (clitic object) + verb
- Focus particle: (clitic subject) + ná + (clitic object) + verb
Prepositions
- na: "in"
Postpositions
- kûli: "with"
Conjunctions
- i: "and" (within a clause)
- mas: "and" (connects clauses)
- o: "or"
- nón: "or" (in questions)
- kán: "while, when"
- borén: "but"
Syntax
Constituent order
Can be almost any order with the help of focus particles.
Noun phrase
Modifiers follow the noun they modify except for cardinal numbers, which precede the noun.
Verb phrase
Sentence phrase
Dependent clauses
Sample Texts
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)
Regular: Aadami tod dili kos li nase kan li se hor i nibrad na orra i deretus. Kos si daba rason i damir, mas e ki biso otu biso kuli li axi modi irmon.
Phonetic: Aadâmi tôd dili kôs li náse kán li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Kôs si dába rasón i damír, mas é ki bisó ôtu bisó kûli li âxi módi irmón.
Portuguese-based: Aadâmi tôd dili côs li násce cã li sê hór i nibrád na órra i derêtus. Côs si dába razõ i damír, mas é qui pissó ôtu pissó cûli li âji módi irmõ.
IPA: /æːðǽmi tɞ́d dili kɞ́s lɪ nɑ́sɛ kɑ́ŋ li sé hɔ́r i nɪbrɑ́d nɑ ʔɔ́rːɑ i derétʉs || kɞ́s si dɑ́bɑ rɑsɔ́ŋ ɪ dɑmɪ́r | mɑs ʔɛ́ kɪ bɪsɔ́ ɞ́tʉ bɪsɔ́ kʉ́li li ʔǽʃi mɔ́dɪ ʔɪrmɔ́ŋ/
Gloss: humanity all 3S.POSS FOC 3S.SUBJ be_born while 3S.SUBJ be free and level in dignity and rights. FOC IMPRS give-PST reason and conscience, and FOC that person other person with 3S.SUBJ act like brother.
Translation: Humanity is born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are given reason and conscience, and a person must behave towards another person like a brother.