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| Luthic has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by [[w:Length (phonetics)|length]] and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for /d͡z/, /ʎ/, /ɲ/, which are always geminate when between vowels, and /z/, which is always single. Geminate plosive and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and /l/ are realised as lengthened continuants. When triggered by [[w:Tuscan gorgia|Gorgia Toscana]], voiceless fricatives are always constrictive, but voiced fricatives are not very constrictive and often closer to approximants. | | Luthic has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by [[w:Length (phonetics)|length]] and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for /d͡z/, /ʎ/, /ɲ/, which are always geminate when between vowels, and /z/, which is always single. Geminate plosive and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and /l/ are realised as lengthened continuants. When triggered by [[w:Tuscan gorgia|Gorgia Toscana]], voiceless fricatives are always constrictive, but voiced fricatives are not very constrictive and often closer to approximants. |
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| ===Phonology===
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| There is a maximum of 8 oral vowels, 5 nasal vowels, 2 semivowels and 35 consonants; though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes. Gothic, Frankish, [[w:Suebi|northern Suebi]], Langobardic, [[w:Lepontic language|Lepontic]] and [[w:Cisalpine Gaulish|Cisalpine Gaulish]] ([[w:Roman Gaul|Roman Gaul]]) influences were highly absorbed into the local Vulgar Latin dialect. An early form of Luthic was already spoken in the Ostrogothic Kingdom during Theodoric’s reign and by the year 600 Luthic had already become the [[w:Vernacular|vernacular]] of Ravenna. Luthic developed in the region of the former Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna, from Late Latin dialects and Vulgar Latin. As Theodoric emerged as the new ruler of Italy, he upheld a Roman legal administration and scholarly culture while promoting a major building program across Italy, his cultural and architectural attention to Ravenna led to a most conserved dialect, resulting in modern Luthic.
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| ====Historical phonology====
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| The phonological system of the Luthic language underwent many changes during the period of its existence. These included the palatalisation of velar consonants in many positions and subsequent [[w:Lenition|lenitions]]. A number of phonological processes affected Luthic in the period before the earliest documentation. The processes took place chronologically in roughly the order described below (with uncertainty in ordering as noted).
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| =====Vowel system=====
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| The most sonorous elements of the [[w:Syllable|syllable] are [[w:Vowel|vowels]], which occupy the [[w:Nucleus (syllable)|nuclear]] position. They are prototypical [[w:Mora (linguistics)|mora]]-bearing elements, with simple vowels monomoraic, and long vowels bimoraic. Latin vowels occurred with one of five qualities and one of two weights, that is short and long /i e a o u/. At first, weight was realised by means of longer or shorter duration, and any articulatory differences were negligible, with the short:long opposition stable. Subtle articulatory differences eventually grow and lead to the abandonment of length, and reanalysis of vocal contrast is shifted solely to quality rather than both quality and quantity; specifically, the manifestation of weight as length came to include differences in tongue [[w:Vowel height|height]] and tenseness, and quite early on, /ī, ū/ began to differ from /ĭ, ŭ/ articulatorily, as did /ē, ō/ from /ĕ, ŏ/. The long vowels were stable, but the short vowels came to be realised lower and laxer, with the result that /ĭ, ŭ/ opened to [ɪ, ʊ], and /ĕ, ŏ/ opened to [ε, ɔ]. The result is the merger of Latin /ĭ, ŭ/ and /ē, ō/, since their contrast is now realised sufficiently be their distinct vowel quality, which would be easier to articulate and perceive than vowel duration.
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| [[File:Vowel changes in Luthic.png|thumb|Gotho-Romance vowel changes from Latin.]]
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| |-
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| |+ Vowels phoneme in Classical Latin
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| !
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| ! [[w:Front vowel|Front]]
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| ! [[w:Central vowel|Central]]
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| ! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]
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| | i iː ĩː
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| | u uː ũː
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
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| | e eː ẽː
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| | o oː õː
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
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| | ä äː ä̃ː
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| |}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| |-
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| |+ Vowels phoneme in Early Spoken Latin
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| !
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| ! [[w:Front vowel|Front]]
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| ! [[w:Central vowel|Central]]
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| ! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]
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| | ɪ iː ĩː
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| | ʊ uː ũː
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]
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| | ε eː ẽː
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| | ɔ oː õː
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| |-
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| ! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
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| | ä äː ä̃ː
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| |}
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| Unstressed a resulted in a slightly raised a [ɐ]. In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become /j/, while unstressed back vowels become /w/.
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| In addition to monophthongs, Luthic has diphthongs, which, however, are both phonemically and phonetically simply combinations of the other vowels. None of the diphthongs are, however, considered to have distinct phonemic status since their constituents do not behave differently from how they occur in isolation, unlike the diphthongs in other languages like English and German. Grammatical tradition distinguishes “falling” from “rising” diphthongs, but since rising diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal sound [j] or [w] and one vowel sound, they are not actually diphthongs. The practice of referring to them as “diphthongs” has been criticised by phoneticians like Alareico Villavolfo.
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| =====Absorption of nasals before fricatives=====
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| This is the source of such alterations as modern Standard Luthic fimfe [ˈfĩ.(p͡)fe] “five”, monþo [ˈmõ.(t͡)θu] “mouth” versus Gothic fimf [ˈɸimɸ] “''id.''”, munþs [ˈmunθs] “''id.''” and German fünf [fʏnf] “''id.''”, Mund [mʊnt] “''id.''”.
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| =====Monophthongization=====
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| The diphthongs au, ae and oe [au̯, ae̯, oe̯] were monophthongized (smoothed) to [ɔ, ɛ, e] by Gothic influence, as the Germanic diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ appear as digraphs written ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ in Gothic. Researchers have disagreed over whether they were still pronounced as diphthongs /ai̯/ and /au̯/ in Ulfilas' time (4th century) or had become long open-mid vowels: /ɛː/ and /ɔː/: ''ains'' [ains] / [ɛːns] “one” (German ''eins'', Icelandic ''einn''), ''augō'' [auɣoː] / [ɔːɣoː] “eye” (German ''Auge'', Icelandic ''auga''). It is most likely that the latter view is correct, as it is indisputable that the digraphs ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ represent the sounds /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ in some circumstances (see below), and ⟨aj⟩ and ⟨aw⟩ were available to unambiguously represent the sounds /ai̯/ and /au̯/. The digraph ⟨aw⟩ is in fact used to represent /au/ in foreign words (such as ''Pawlus'' “Paul”), and alternations between ⟨ai⟩/⟨aj⟩ and ⟨au⟩/⟨aw⟩ are scrupulously maintained in paradigms where both variants occur (e.g. ''taujan'' “to do” vs. [[w:Past tense|past tense]] ''tawida'' “did”). Evidence from transcriptions of Gothic names into Latin suggests that the sound change had occurred very recently when Gothic spelling was standardised: Gothic names with Germanic au are rendered with au in Latin until the 4th century and o later on (''Austrogoti'' > ''Ostrogoti'').
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| =====Palatalisation=====
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| Early evidence of palatalized pronunciations of /tj kj/ appears as early as the 2nd–3rd centuries AD in the form of spelling mistakes interchanging ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩ before a following vowel, as in ⟨tribunitiae⟩ for tribuniciae. This is assumed to reflect the fronting of Latin /k/ in this environment to [c ~ t͡sʲ]. Palatalisation of the velar consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ occurred in certain environments, mostly involving front vowels; additional palatalisation is also found in dental consonants /t/, /d/, /l/ and /n/, however, these are not palatalised in word initial environment.
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| * Latin ''amīcus'' [äˈmiː.kus̠ ~ äˈmiː.kʊs̠], ''amīcī'' [äˈmiː.kiː] > Luthic ''amico'' [ɐˈmi.xu], ''amici'' [ɐˈmi.t͡ʃi].
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| * Gothic ''giba'' [ˈɡiβa] > Luthic ''giva'' [ˈd͡ʒi.vɐ].
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| * Latin ''ratiō'' [ˈrä.t̪i.oː] > Luthic ''razione'' [ʁɐˈd͡zjo.ne]
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| * Latin ''fīlius'' [ˈfiː.li.us̠ ~ ˈfiː.lʲi.ʊs̠] > Luthic ''fiġlo'' [ˈfiʎ.ʎu].
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| * Latin ''līnea'' [ˈliː.ne.ä ~ ˈlʲiː.ne.ä] , ''pugnus'' [ˈpuŋ.nus̠ ~ ˈpʊŋ.nʊs̠], ''ācrimōnia'' [äː.kriˈmoː.ni.ä ~ äː.krɪˈmoː.ni.ä] > Luthic ''liġna'' [ˈliɲ.ɲɐ], ''poġno'' [ˈpoɲ.ɲu], ''acremoġna'' [ɐ.kɾeˈmoɲ.ɲɐ].
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| Labio-velars remain unpalatalised, except in monosyllabic environment:
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| * Latin ''quis'' [kʷis̠ ~ kʷɪs̠] > Luthic ''ce'' [t͡ʃe].
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| * Gothic ''qiman'' [ˈkʷiman] > Luthic ''qemare'' [kʷeˈma.ɾe ~ kᶣeˈma.ɾe].
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| =====Lenition=====
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| The Gotho-Romance family suffered very few lenitions, but in most cases the stops /p t k/ are lenited to /b d ɡ/ if not in onset position, before or after a sonorant or in intervocalic position as a geminate. A similar process happens with /b/ that is lenited to /v/ in the same conditions. The non-geminate rhotic present in Latin is simplified to /ɾ ʁ/. The unstressed labio-velar /kʷ/ delabialises before hard vowels, as in:
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| * Gothic ''ƕan'' [ʍan] > *[kʷɐn] > Luthic ''can'' [kɐn].
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| * Latin ''nunquam'' [ˈnuŋ.kʷä̃ː ~ ˈnʊŋ.kʷä̃ː] > Luthic ''nogca'' [ˈnoŋ.kɐ].
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| Luthic is further affected by the Gorgia Toscana effect, where every plosive is spirantised (or further approximated if voiced). Plosives, however, are not affected if:
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| * Geminate.
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| * Labialised.
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| * Nearby another fricative.
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| * Nearby a rhotic, a lateral or nasal.
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| * Stressed and anlaut.
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| =====Fortition=====
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| In every case, /j/ and /w/ are fortified to /d͡ʒ/ and /v/, except when triggered by hiatus collapse. The Germanic /ð/ and /xʷ ~ hʷ ~ ʍ/ are also fortified to /d/ and /kʷ/ in every position; which can be further lenited to /d͡z/ and /k ~ t͡ʃ/ in the environments given above. The Germanic /h ~ x/ is fortified to /k/ before a rhotic or a lateral, as in:
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| * Gothic ''hlaifs'' [ˈhlɛːɸs] > Luthic ''claifo'' [ˈklɛ.fu].
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| * Gothic ''hriggs'' [ˈhriŋɡs ~ ˈhriŋks] > Luthic ''creggo'' [ˈkɾeŋ.ɡu].
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| Coda consonants with similar articulations often [[w:Sandhi|sandhi]], triggering a kind of [[w:Syntactic gemination|syntactic gemination]], it also happens with [[w:Oxytone|oxytones]]:
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| * ''Il catto'' [i‿kˈkat.tu].
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| * ''Ed þû, ce taugis?'' [e‿θˈθu | t͡ʃe ˈtɔ.d͡ʒis?].
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| * ''La cittâ stâþ sporca'' [lɐ t͡ʃitˈta‿sˈsta‿sˈspoɾ.kɐ].
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| Regarding the absorption of nasals before fricatives, voiceless fricatives are often fortified to affricates after alveolar consonants, such as /n l ɾ/, or general nasals:
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| * ''Il monþo'' [i‿mˈmõ.t͡θu].
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| * ''L’inferno'' [l‿ĩˈp͡fɛɾ.nu].
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| * ''La salsa'' [lɐ ˈsal.t͡sɐ].
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| * ''L’arsenale'' [l‿ɐɾ.t͡seˈna.le].
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| =====Deletion=====
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| In some rare cases, the consonants are fully deleted ([[w:Elision|elision]]), as in the verb ''havere'', akin to Italian ''avere'', which followed a very similar paradigm and evolution:
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| * 1st person indicative present: Latin ''habeō'', Gothic ''haba'', Luthic ''hô'', Italian ''ho''.
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| * 2nd person indicative present: Latin ''habēs'', Gothic ''habais'', Luthic ''haïs'', Italian ''hai''.
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| * 3rd person indicative present: Latin ''habet'', Gothic ''habaiþ'', Luthic ''hâþ'', Italian ''ha''.
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| Vowels other than /a/ are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially when in contact with liquid consonants:
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| * Latin ''angulus'' [ˈäŋ.ɡu.ɫ̪us̠ ~ ˈäŋ.ɡʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic ''agglo'' [ˈaŋ.ɡlu].
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| * Latin ''speculum'' [ˈs̠pɛ.ku.ɫ̪ũː ~ ˈs̠pɛ.kʊ.ɫ̪ũː] ~ Luthic ''speclȯ'' [ˈspɛ.klo].
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| * Latin ''avunculus'' [äˈu̯uŋ.ku.ɫ̪us̠ ~ äˈu̯ʊŋ.kʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic ''avogclo'' [ɐˈvoŋ.klu].
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| ====Phonotactics====
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| Luthic allows up to three consonants in syllable-initial position, though there are limitations. The syllable structure of Luthic is (C)(C)(C)(G)V(G)(C)(C). As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants. Luthic lacks bimoraic (diphthongs and long vowels), as the so-called diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal (glide) sound [j] or [w].
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| ! C₁ !! C₂ !! C₃
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| |+ '''Onset'''
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| |-
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| | f v p b t d k ɡ || ɾ || j w
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| |-
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| | s || p k || ɾ l
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| |-
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| | s || f t || ɾ
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| |-
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| | z || b || l
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| |-
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| | z || d ɡ || ɾ
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| |-
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| | z || m n v d͡ʒ ɾ l || —
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| |-
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| | p b f v k ɡ || ɾ l || —
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| |-
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| | ɡ || n l || —
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| |-
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| | pʰ t tʰ kʰ d || ɾ || —
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| |-
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| | θ || v ɾ || —
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| |-
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| |kʷ ɡʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ h ð ʁ ɲ l ʎ || — || —
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| |}
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| '''CC'''
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| * /s/ + any voiceless stop or /f/;
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| * /z/ + any voiced stop, /v d͡ʒ m n l ɾ/;
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| * /f v/, or any stop + /ɾ/;
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| * /f v/, or any stop except /t d/ + /l/;
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| * /f v s z/, or any stop or nasal + /j w/;
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| * In Graeco-Roman words origin which are only partially assimilated, other combinations such as /pn/ (e.g. ''pneumatico''), /mn/ (e.g. ''mnemonico''), /tm/ (e.g. ''tmesi''), and /ps/ (e.g. ''pseudo-'') occur.
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| As an onset, the cluster /s/ + voiceless consonant is inherently unstable. Phonetically, word-internal s+C normally syllabifies as [s.C]. A competing analysis accepts that while the syllabification /s.C/ is accurate historically, modern retreat of i-[[w:Prothesis (linguistics)|prosthesis]] before word initial /s/+C (e.g. ''miþ isforza'' “with effort” has generally given way to ''miþ sforzȧ'') suggests that the structure is now underdetermined, with occurrence of /s.C/ or /.sC/ variable “according to the context and the idiosyncratic behaviour of the speakers.”
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| '''CCC'''
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| * /s/ + voiceless stop or /f/ + /ɾ/;
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| * /z/ + voiced stop + /ɾ/;
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| * /s/ + /p k/ + /l/;
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| * /z/ + /b/ + /l/;
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| * /f v/ or any stop + /ɾ/ + /j w/.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| ! V₁ !! V₂ !! V₃
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| |+ '''Nucleus'''
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| |-
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| | a ɐ e ɛ || i [j] u [w] || —
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| |-
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| | o ɔ || i [j]|| —
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| |-
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| | i [j] || e o || —
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| |-
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| | i [j] || ɐ ɛ ɔ || i [j]
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| |-
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| | i [j] || u [w] || o
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| |-
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| | u [w] || ɐ ɛ ɔ || i [j]
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| |-
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| | u [w] || e o || —
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| |-
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| | u [w] || i || —
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| |}
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| The nucleus is the only mandatory part of a syllable and must be a vowel or a diphthong. In a falling diphthong the most common second elements are /i̯/ or /u̯/. Combinations of /j w/ with vowels are often labelled diphthongs, allowing for combinations of /j w/ with falling diphthongs to be called triphthongs. One view holds that it is more accurate to label /j w/ as consonants and /jV wV/ as consonant-vowel sequences rather than rising diphthongs. In that interpretation, Luthic has only falling diphthongs (phonemically at least, cf. [[w:Synaeresis|Synaeresis]]) and no triphthongs.
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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| ! C₁ !! C₂
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| |+ '''Coda'''
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| |-
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| | m n l ɾ || Cₓ
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| |-
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| | Cₓ || —
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| |}
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| Luthic permits a small number of coda consonants. Outside of loanwords, the permitted consonants are:
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|
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| * The first element of any geminate.
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| * A nasal consonant that is either /n/ (word-finally) or one that is homorganic to a following consonant.
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| * /ɾ/ and /l/.
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| * /s/ (though not before fricatives).
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|
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| =====Prosody=====
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| Luthic is quasi-[[w:Paroxytone|paroxytonic]], meaning that most words receive stress on their penultimate (second-to-last) syllable. Monosyllabic words tend to lack stress in their only syllable, unless emphasised or accentuated. Enclitic and other unstressed personal pronouns do not affect stress patterns. Some monosyllabic words may have natural stress (even if not emphasised), but it is weaker than those in polysyllabic words.
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| * ''rasda'' (ʀᴀ-sda ~ ʀᴀs-da) /ˈʁa.zdɐ ~ ˈʁaz.dɐ/;
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| * ''Italia'' (i-ᴛᴀ-lia) /iˈta.ljɐ];
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| * ''approssimativamente'' (ap-pros-si-ma-ti-va-ᴍᴇɴ-te) /ɐp.pɾos.si.mɐ.θi.vɐˈmen.te/.
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| Compound words have secondary stress on their penultimate syllable. Some suffixes also maintain the suffixed word secondary stress.
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| * ''panzar'' + ''campo'' + ''vaġno'' > ''panzarcampovaġno'' (ᴘᴀɴ-zar-ᴄᴀᴍ-po-ᴠᴀ-ġno) /ˌpan.t͡sɐɾˌkam.poˈvaɲ.ɲu/;
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| * ''broþar'' + ''-scape'' > ''broþarscape'' (ʙʀᴏ-þar-sᴄᴀ-pe) /ˌbɾo.θɐɾˈska.fe/.
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| Secondary stress is however often omitted by Italian influence. Tetrasyllabic (and beyond) words may have a very weak secondary stress in the fourth-to-last syllable (i.e. two syllables before the main or primary stress).
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| ==Research== | | ==Research== |