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Europaico (view source)

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Palatal and post-alveolar consonants other than /j/ will be referred collectively as 'palatals'. All of these consonants might alternatively be pronounced as a palatalized alveolars (/nʲ/ for ''ň'', /tʲ/ for ''ť'' and so on) if that's easier for the speaker.
Palatal and post-alveolar consonants other than /j/ will be referred collectively as 'palatals'. All of these consonants might alternatively be pronounced as a palatalized alveolars (/nʲ/ for ''ň'', /tʲ/ for ''ť'' and so on) if that's easier for the speaker.


The consonant /z/ may alternate freely between an alveolar realization \[z\] or a post-alveolar one /ʒ/. This explains why words which had a /ʒ/ or /dʒ/ in their source language might enter Europaico with a /z/ instead.
The consonant /z/ may alternate freely between an alveolar realization [z] or a post-alveolar one /ʒ/. This explains why words which had a /ʒ/ or /dʒ/ in their source language might enter Europaico with a /z/ instead.


A velar nasal \[ŋ\] appear as an allophone of /n/ in clusters such as \[ŋk\] and \[ŋɡ\]. This consonant sound is not distinguished from /n/ in either orthography.
A velar nasal [ŋ] appear as an allophone of /n/ in clusters such as [ŋk] and [ŋɡ]. This consonant sound is not distinguished from /n/ in either orthography.


=== Vowels and diphthongs ===
=== Vowels and diphthongs ===
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Vowels other than /i/ and /u/ might be preceded by the glide /j/, yielding four sequences which could be analyzed as rising diphthongs: /ja/, /je/, /jo/ and /ju/.
Vowels other than /i/ and /u/ might be preceded by the glide /j/, yielding four sequences which could be analyzed as rising diphthongs: /ja/, /je/, /jo/ and /ju/.


In addition to those, Europaico features seven falling diphthongs /ai̯ au̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ ui̯/, which might also be pronounced as \[aɪ̯ aʊ̯ eɪ̯ eʊ̯ oɪ̯ oʊ̯ uɪ̯\].
In addition to those, Europaico features seven falling diphthongs /ai̯ au̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ ui̯/, which might also be pronounced as [aɪ̯ aʊ̯ eɪ̯ eʊ̯ oɪ̯ oʊ̯ uɪ̯].


It might be noted that the /eu̯/ diphthong, featured in Europaico's own name no less, is absent from most major European languages (including German, English, French, most Slavic languages, etc). As a way to ease this problem, speakers are allowed to substitute /eu̯/ for whatever might be their native pronunciation of \<eu\> (as in their local pronunciation of 'Europe'). This means that possible realizations for Europaico's initial diphthong include \[jʊ\] (English), \[ø\] (Dutch, Danish, French), \[ɛɵ\] (Swedish), \[ɛv\] (Bulgarian) and \[\ɔʏ\] (German) among others.
It might be noted that the /eu̯/ diphthong, featured in Europaico's own name no less, is absent from most major European languages (including German, English, French, most Slavic languages, etc). As a way to ease this problem, speakers are allowed to substitute /eu̯/ for whatever might be their native pronunciation of \<eu\> (as in their local pronunciation of 'Europe'). This means that possible realizations for Europaico's initial diphthong include [jʊ] (English), [ø] (Dutch, Danish, French), [ɛɵ] (Swedish), [ɛv] (Bulgarian) and [\ɔʏ] (German) among others.


Europaico does not contrast between diphthong and hiatus sequences involving the same vowel qualities, a sequence such as /ai/ will always correspond to an /ai̯/ diphthong rather than an /a.i/ hiatus.
Europaico does not contrast between diphthong and hiatus sequences involving the same vowel qualities, a sequence such as /ai/ will always correspond to an /ai̯/ diphthong rather than an /a.i/ hiatus.
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Whenever possible, Europaico nouns are taken from Slavic languages, especially Russian, Polish, Czech and Bosnio-Montenegrin. More widespread variants and more conservative forms are preferred, for instance the noun '''''slovo''''', 'word', preserves a /l/ sound that shifted to /w/ in Polish ''słowo'' /ˈswɔ.vɔ/, while Europaico's word for 'wheel' is '''''colo''''', which has cognates in Polish, Czech and Bosnio-Montenegrin among others, rather than a form like ''koleso'' which is restricted to Eastern Slavic languages like Ukrainian and Russian.
Whenever possible, Europaico nouns are taken from Slavic languages, especially Russian, Polish, Czech and Bosnio-Montenegrin. More widespread variants and more conservative forms are preferred, for instance the noun '''''slovo''''', 'word', preserves a /l/ sound that shifted to /w/ in Polish ''słowo'' /ˈswɔ.vɔ/, while Europaico's word for 'wheel' is '''''colo''''', which has cognates in Polish, Czech and Bosnio-Montenegrin among others, rather than a form like ''koleso'' which is restricted to Eastern Slavic languages like Ukrainian and Russian.


Sometimes an Europaico word will not exactly match any of its sources. For instance, the Europaico word for 'wolf' is '''''vulk''''', made as a compromise between various descendants of Proto-Slavic ''\''vьlkъ'', including Russian ''волк'' (volk), Polish ''wilk'', Czech ''vlk'' (with a syllabic L that is not allowed in Europaico) and Bosnio-Montenegrin ''vuk''.
Sometimes an Europaico word will not exactly match any of its sources. For instance, the Europaico word for 'wolf' is '''''vulk''''', made as a compromise between various descendants of Proto-Slavic ''*'vьlkъ'', including Russian ''волк'' (volk), Polish ''wilk'', Czech ''vlk'' (with a syllabic L that is not allowed in Europaico) and Bosnio-Montenegrin ''vuk''.


In order to boost recognizability, words are borrowed without the final-consonant devoicing found in Polish and Russian, among others. For instance, the word for bread, written as ''chleb'' in Polish and as ''хлеб'' (''khlyeb'') in Russian but pronounced as /xlɛp/ and /xlʲep/ respectively, is borrowed into Europaico as '''''hlieb''''' pronounced /xljeb/ (it should be noted that the /b/ phoneme is found in other inflectional forms of the Polish and Russian words).
In order to boost recognizability, words are borrowed without the final-consonant devoicing found in Polish and Russian, among others. For instance, the word for bread, written as ''chleb'' in Polish and as ''хлеб'' (''khlyeb'') in Russian but pronounced as /xlɛp/ and /xlʲep/ respectively, is borrowed into Europaico as '''''hlieb''''' pronounced /xljeb/ (it should be noted that the /b/ phoneme is found in other inflectional forms of the Polish and Russian words).
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Thus, ''hlieb'' (bread) can be recognized as masculine noun while ''colo'' (wheel) is a neuter noun, even though both refer to inanimate naturally genderless objects.
Thus, ''hlieb'' (bread) can be recognized as masculine noun while ''colo'' (wheel) is a neuter noun, even though both refer to inanimate naturally genderless objects.


The grammatical gender of nouns ending in a vowel other than neuter ''-o'' and ''-e'' or feminine ''-a'' cannot be determined from its form. Such nouns are rare and can usually be explained as borrowings from other language families such as ''çunami'' from Japanese ''tsunami''. Then the gender of the word depends on how it was usually borrowed into Slavic languages. In this case of ''çunami'', we can find that the Japanese word was borrowed as neuter ''цуна́ми'' (''tsunámi'') in Russian, neuter ''tsunami'' in Polish, feminine ''tsunami'' in Czech and masculine ''cunámi'' in Bosnio-Montenegrin; as a result Europaico ''çunami'' was made neuter gender as the most common option among those four control language.
The grammatical gender of nouns ending in a vowel other than neuter ''-o'' and ''-e'' or feminine ''-a'' cannot be determined from its form. Such nouns are rare and can usually be explained as borrowings from other language families such as ''çunami'' from Japanese ''tsunami''. Then the gender of the word depends on how it was usually borrowed into Slavic languages. In this case of ''çunami'', we can find that the Japanese word was borrowed as neuter ''цуна́ми'' (''tsunámi'') in Russian, neuter ''tsunami'' in Polish, feminine ''tsunami'' in Czech and masculine ''cunámi'' in Bosnio-Montenegrin; as a result Europaico ''çunami'' was made neuter gender as the most common option among those four control languages.


Some Slavic languages have at least some form of animacy marking on top of their three-wise gender system, often distinguishing between animate and inanimate masculine nouns in their grammar. This distinction is not found in Europaico.
Some Slavic languages have at least some form of animacy marking on top of their three-wise gender system, often distinguishing between animate and inanimate masculine nouns in their grammar. This distinction is not found in Europaico.
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| '''Neuter, singular''' || '''''lo''''' || ''lo miesto'' (the city) || '''''eno''''' || ''eno miesto'' (a city)
| '''Neuter, singular''' || '''''lo''''' || ''lo miesto'' (the city) || '''''eno''''' || ''eno miesto'' (a city)
|-
|-
| '''Feminine, plural''' || '''''les''''' || ''les zenes'' (the women) || - || ''zenes'' (\[some\] women)
| '''Feminine, plural''' || '''''les''''' || ''les zenes'' (the women) || - || ''zenes'' ([some] women)
|-
|-
| '''Common, plural''' || '''''lis''''' || ''lis muzis'' (the men) || - || ''muzis'' (\[some\] men)
| '''Common, plural''' || '''''lis''''' || ''lis muzis'' (the men) || - || ''muzis'' ([some] men)
|}
|}


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Naturally, Europaico picks the best of both worlds (?) and forms possessives by preceding the noun with the preposition ''des'' (replacing the article, if any) and a suffix ''-s'' which, in order to avoid confusion with the final /s/ found in plural endings, must also be marked with an apostrophe like the English ''-'s'' clitic.
Naturally, Europaico picks the best of both worlds (?) and forms possessives by preceding the noun with the preposition ''des'' (replacing the article, if any) and a suffix ''-s'' which, in order to avoid confusion with the final /s/ found in plural endings, must also be marked with an apostrophe like the English ''-'s'' clitic.


The possessive ''-'s'' suffix is applied without any regard to the shape of the previous word. This might yield unusual combinations such as ''des muz's'' (man's) with a /zs/ cluster which, in practice, speakers might end up simplifying to either /z/ or /s/ (even though, strictly speaking, an unreduced /zs/ cluster is prescribed) as well as sequences of multiple /s/ as in ''des muzis's'' (men's) which are not distinguished from a single /s/ (''muzis'' and ''muzis's'' will be pronounced identically as /ˈmu.zis/ or \[ˈmu.ʑis\]).
The possessive ''-'s'' suffix is applied without any regard to the shape of the previous word. This might yield unusual combinations such as ''des muz's'' (man's) with a /zs/ cluster which, in practice, speakers might end up simplifying to either /z/ or /s/ (even though, strictly speaking, an unreduced /zs/ cluster is prescribed) as well as sequences of multiple /s/ as in ''des muzis's'' (men's) which are not distinguished from a single /s/ (''muzis'' and ''muzis's'' will be pronounced identically as /ˈmu.zis/ or [ˈmu.ʑis]).


Possessives are placed ''after'' the noun they modified. For instance, ''lo ďeťe des zena's'' for "the child of the woman" / "the woman's child" (or '''a'' woman's child', as ''des'' might replace either definite or indefinite articles).
Possessives are placed ''after'' the noun they modified. For instance, ''lo ďeťe des zena's'' for "the child of the woman" / "the woman's child" (or '''a'' woman's child', as ''des'' might replace either definite or indefinite articles).
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Some recommended strategies for adapting names to include the right ending include:
Some recommended strategies for adapting names to include the right ending include:
* For anyone:
* For anyone:
** Look at historical variants or foreign counterparts of the name. For instance, Spanish ''José'' might regain its historical /p/ (preserved in Catalan ''Josep'' and Italian ''Giuseppe'' among others) to become ''Hosep'', while an English ''Elizabeth'' might opt to go instead by ''Isabela'', after the Italian and Latin versions of her name.
* * Look at historical variants or foreign counterparts of the name. For instance, Spanish ''José'' might regain its historical /p/ (preserved in Catalan ''Josep'' and Italian ''Giuseppe'' among others) to become ''Hosep'', while an English ''Elizabeth'' might opt to go instead by ''Isabela'', after the Italian and Latin versions of her name.
* For women:
* For women:
** Add ''-a'' or the very Slavic-esque ''-va'' to the end of your name.
* * Add ''-a'' or the very Slavic-esque ''-va'' to the end of your name.
*** For instance ''Mary Sue'' might adapt her name as ''Marija Šuva''.
* ** For instance ''Mary Sue'' might adapt her name as ''Marija Šuva''.
** Replace final alveolar letters with their palatal counterparts: ''Karen'' → ''Careň''.
* * Replace final alveolar letters with their palatal counterparts: ''Karen'' → ''Careň''.
* For men:
* For men:
** Dropping final vowels might be an easy option: ''Enrico'' → ''Enric''.
* * Dropping final vowels might be an easy option: ''Enrico'' → ''Enric''.
** Add a very Slavic-like ''-v'', particularly for surnames ending in ''e'' or ''o'': ''Vito Corleone'' → ''Victor Corleonev''.
* * Add a very Slavic-like ''-v'', particularly for surnames ending in ''e'' or ''o'': ''Vito Corleone'' → ''Victor Corleonev''.
** Replace final palatal letters with their alveolar counterparts: ''Ivanovič'' → ''Ivanoviç'' (it turns out that Slavic names don't do all that well either).
* * Replace final palatal letters with their alveolar counterparts: ''Ivanovič'' → ''Ivanoviç'' (it turns out that Slavic names don't do all that well either).
* For non-binary people:
* For non-binary people:
** Isn't there enough invisibilization of non-binary identities already for you to bother with a conlang with mandatory gender marking too? Keep your name of choice, use a neuter ending or do whatever else you want, suit yourself! Sorry in advance for past-tense verbs, though.
* * Isn't there enough invisibilization of non-binary identities already for you to bother with a conlang with mandatory gender marking too? Keep your name of choice, use a neuter ending or do whatever else you want, suit yourself! Sorry in advance for past-tense verbs, though.


==== Placenames ====
==== Placenames ====
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Perhaps the most common option among modern auxiliary languages is to use the name locals use for the place in their own language. This seems like a very reasonable thing to do (which, of course, precludes Europaico from doing it) although it has a few problems.
Perhaps the most common option among modern auxiliary languages is to use the name locals use for the place in their own language. This seems like a very reasonable thing to do (which, of course, precludes Europaico from doing it) although it has a few problems.
* First of all, the resulting names risk having little international recognizability. This can be easily exemplified with Austria and its capital, Vienna. While the Latin-esque names used in English have a good chance of being understood all around the world, the German names ''Österreich'' and ''Wien'' are considerably more obscure, and the need to adapt them to Europaico phonotactics would yield even less recognizable results such as ''\''Estaraič'' and ''\''Vin''.
* First of all, the resulting names risk having little international recognizability. This can be easily exemplified with Austria and its capital, Vienna. While the Latin-esque names used in English have a good chance of being understood all around the world, the German names ''Österreich'' and ''Wien'' are considerably more obscure, and the need to adapt them to Europaico phonotactics would yield even less recognizable results such as ''*'Estaraič'' and ''*'Vin''.
* The very concept of using the local language presupposes that there ''is'' a local language, bringing a whole lot of complications:
* The very concept of using the local language presupposes that there ''is'' a local language, bringing a whole lot of complications:
** For starters, the scheme couldn't apply to uninhabited places like most of Antarctica, deserted islands or the State of Wyoming.
* * For starters, the scheme couldn't apply to uninhabited places like most of Antarctica, deserted islands or the State of Wyoming.
** Continents and regions comprising linguistically diverse nations will likely have a variety of possible names. For the most extreme example, consider the name given to the planet itself: if there was a language widely accepted enough to be used for naming Earth as a whole, then chances are that we should be using that instead of any auxlang.
* * Continents and regions comprising linguistically diverse nations will likely have a variety of possible names. For the most extreme example, consider the name given to the planet itself: if there was a language widely accepted enough to be used for naming Earth as a whole, then chances are that we should be using that instead of any auxlang.
** Last but not least, many nations, provinces and cities are multilingual, often bearing multiple local names. Picking the variant favored by most locals seems like an easy choice but there won't be always a clear 'most used language' (and, even if there currently is one, it would be liable to change over time). Furthermore, the choice of one name over the other could be socially and politically problematic, highlighting regional tensions and stir debates about the colonialism and the repression of minorities.  
* * Last but not least, many nations, provinces and cities are multilingual, often bearing multiple local names. Picking the variant favored by most locals seems like an easy choice but there won't be always a clear 'most used language' (and, even if there currently is one, it would be liable to change over time). Furthermore, the choice of one name over the other could be socially and politically problematic, highlighting regional tensions and stir debates about the colonialism and the repression of minorities.  


The second strategy, perhaps more common among earlier auxiliary languages, was to draw most names from a single source, usually an internationally 'prestigious' source such as English, French or Latin. This is the sort of reasoning that would suggest that we do indee pick internationally-recognizable names such as ''\''Austria'' and ''\''Viena'' for Austria and Vienna, where 'internationally-recognizable' means 'names speakers of major Western European languages are likely to have heard'. The colonialism undertones of that are problematic enough to stay away from that idea.
The second strategy, perhaps more common among earlier auxiliary languages, was to draw most names from a single source, usually an internationally 'prestigious' source such as English, French or Latin. This is the sort of reasoning that would suggest that we do indee pick internationally-recognizable names such as ''*'Austria'' and ''*'Viena'' for Austria and Vienna, where 'internationally-recognizable' means 'names speakers of major Western European languages are likely to have heard'. The colonialism undertones of that are problematic enough to stay away from that idea.


Fortunately, Europaico provides the ultimate solution for this sort of problem: all toponyms will be based on the names used in Czech. The Czech language is already phonetically close to Europaico, so distortions like the one found between German ''Österreich'' and ''\''Esteraič'' would be minimal. This solution completely sidesteps all linguistic and political issues with choosing a single 'local language' for each place and, with the Czech Republic lacking a colonial history, few people would question this choice on the basis of it being overly imperialistic (Slovaks might get a pass at it, but I am not aware of there ever being any Slovak placename which isn't the same in Czech).
Fortunately, Europaico provides the ultimate solution for this sort of problem: all toponyms will be based on the names used in Czech. The Czech language is already phonetically close to Europaico, so distortions like the one found between German ''Österreich'' and ''*'Esteraič'' would be minimal. This solution completely sidesteps all linguistic and political issues with choosing a single 'local language' for each place and, with the Czech Republic lacking a colonial history, few people would question this choice on the basis of it being overly imperialistic (Slovaks might get a pass at it, but I am not aware of there ever being any Slovak placename which isn't the same in Czech).


Thus, Austria and Vienna, rather than having scarcely recognizable names such as ''\''Estaraič'' and ''\''Vin'' or potentially problematic names such as ''\''Austria'' and ''\''Viena'', will be known in Europaico as ''Racousco'' and ''Videň'', after the Czech names ''Rakousko'' and ''Vídeň'' respectively.
Thus, Austria and Vienna, rather than having scarcely recognizable names such as ''*'Estaraič'' and ''*'Vin'' or potentially problematic names such as ''*'Austria'' and ''*'Viena'', will be known in Europaico as ''Racousco'' and ''Videň'', after the Czech names ''Rakousko'' and ''Vídeň'' respectively.


=== Adjectives ===
=== Adjectives ===
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* Accusative forms such as ''me'' drop the final ''-e'' when followed by a vowel-initial verb.
* Accusative forms such as ''me'' drop the final ''-e'' when followed by a vowel-initial verb.
* A formality distinction is made between informal second person singular ''tü'' (corresponding to Spanish ''tú'', ''vos'', French ''tu'', Italian ''tu'', Russian ''ты'', etc) and formal ''Vi'' (corresponding to Spanish ''usted'', French ''vous'', Italian ''Lei'', Russian ''вы'', etc).
* A formality distinction is made between informal second person singular ''tü'' (corresponding to Spanish ''tú'', ''vos'', French ''tu'', Italian ''tu'', Russian ''ты'', etc) and formal ''Vi'' (corresponding to Spanish ''usted'', French ''vous'', Italian ''Lei'', Russian ''вы'', etc).
** As with French ''vous'', or Russian ''вы'', Europaico ''Vi'' takes second person plural verbforms, even though it is used for singular 'you'.
* * As with French ''vous'', or Russian ''вы'', Europaico ''Vi'' takes second person plural verbforms, even though it is used for singular 'you'.
** As in Italian ''Lei'', the formal pronoun ''Vi'' is capitalized in all cases.
* * As in Italian ''Lei'', the formal pronoun ''Vi'' is capitalized in all cases.


Europaico pronouns ''might'' optionally be dropped when in subject position. This hardly ever results in ambiguity as verbs conjugate to agree with their subject. Still, it is ''preferred'' to keep subject, even if redundant, for additional clarity, with pronoun ellipsis being more of a stylistic choice to avoid repetition.
Europaico pronouns ''might'' optionally be dropped when in subject position. This hardly ever results in ambiguity as verbs conjugate to agree with their subject. Still, it is ''preferred'' to keep subject, even if redundant, for additional clarity, with pronoun ellipsis being more of a stylistic choice to avoid repetition.
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==== Reflexive pronoun ''si'' ====
==== Reflexive pronoun ''si'' ====


Europaico also includes a reflexive pronoun only found in accusative form: ''si'' (\[one\]self).
Europaico also includes a reflexive pronoun only found in accusative form: ''si'' ([one]self).


In Romance languages, reflexive pronouns are required when the same a third person referent appears as both the subject and the object of a verb as in Spanish ''él '''se''' ve'' (he sees himself), which contrasts wordings using the accusative form of the standard third person pronoun as in ''él '''lo''' ve'', which is interpreted instead as 'he sees ''him'' (a different person)'. Correspondingly, Europaico has ''el '''si''' sei'' for 'he sees himself' and ''el le sei'' for 'he sees him (someone else)'. Making this distinction is mandatory.
In Romance languages, reflexive pronouns are required when the same a third person referent appears as both the subject and the object of a verb as in Spanish ''él '''se''' ve'' (he sees himself), which contrasts wordings using the accusative form of the standard third person pronoun as in ''él '''lo''' ve'', which is interpreted instead as 'he sees ''him'' (a different person)'. Correspondingly, Europaico has ''el '''si''' sei'' for 'he sees himself' and ''el le sei'' for 'he sees him (someone else)'. Making this distinction is mandatory.
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The reflexive possessive ''sin'' is used to indicate possession by the subject, being mandatory when it refers to a third person and optional for the first or second person, much as discussed for accusative ''si''. For example:
The reflexive possessive ''sin'' is used to indicate possession by the subject, being mandatory when it refers to a third person and optional for the first or second person, much as discussed for accusative ''si''. For example:
* ''El sei lo miesto sino'' ~ He sees his \[own\] city.
* ''El sei lo miesto sino'' ~ He sees his [own] city.
* ''El sei lo miesto lino'' ~ He sees his \[someone else's\] city.
* ''El sei lo miesto lino'' ~ He sees his [someone else's] city.
* ''Ye seic lo miesto mino'' / ''Ye seic lo miesto sino'' ~ I see my city.
* ''Ye seic lo miesto mino'' / ''Ye seic lo miesto sino'' ~ I see my city.
* ''Ye seic lo miesto lino'' ~ I see his city.
* ''Ye seic lo miesto lino'' ~ I see his city.
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- Finally, the '''future tense''' (`FUT`) is simply used for future events: ''ye '''guic singuen''''' corresponds to English 'I '''will sing'''' or ''I '''am goint to sing'''''.
- Finally, the '''future tense''' (`FUT`) is simply used for future events: ''ye '''guic singuen''''' corresponds to English 'I '''will sing'''' or ''I '''am goint to sing'''''.


As it can be observed from the examples, the '''present''' and '''imperfect''' tenses are formed by adding suffixes to the present and past stems of the verb (which, in the case of ''singuen'', 'to sing', are ''sing-'' and ''sang-'', after English 'sing' and 'sang'). These suffixes change depending on the subject, with verb endings inspired by French and Catalan conjugation \[while basing features in Catalan might seem an odd choice for an international language, it can be noted that due to its geographic position and history it sort of bridges the gap between Spanish and French, the two most spoken Romance languages\].
As it can be observed from the examples, the '''present''' and '''imperfect''' tenses are formed by adding suffixes to the present and past stems of the verb (which, in the case of ''singuen'', 'to sing', are ''sing-'' and ''sang-'', after English 'sing' and 'sang'). These suffixes change depending on the subject, with verb endings inspired by French and Catalan conjugation [while basing features in Catalan might seem an odd choice for an international language, it can be noted that due to its geographic position and history it sort of bridges the gap between Spanish and French, the two most spoken Romance languages].


For a regular verb such as ''helpen'' (to help, present stem ''help-'', past stem ''holp-'', past auxiliary ''aven''), present ans imperfect forms are formed as follows:
For a regular verb such as ''helpen'' (to help, present stem ''help-'', past stem ''holp-'', past auxiliary ''aven''), present ans imperfect forms are formed as follows:


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''helpo''             | ''holpeic''                 |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''helpes''           | ''holpeis''                 |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''helpo'' || ''holpeic''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''helpe''             | ''holpei''                   |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''helpens''           | ''holpeyens''               |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''helpes'' || ''holpeis''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''helpeť''           | ''holpeyeť''                 |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''helpen''           | ''holpeyen''                 |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''helpe'' || ''holpei''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''helpens'' || ''holpeyens''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''helpeť'' || ''holpeyeť''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''helpen'' || ''holpeyen''
|}


Note that verbs such as ''singuen'' present slight orthographic irregularities in their conjugation due to the sequences /ɡe/ and /ɡi/ requiring a silent ''u'' in the Latin orthography yielding ''singo'' for 'I sing' but ''sing'''u'''es'' for 'you sing' (still pronounced /ˈsin.ɡes/).
Note that verbs such as ''singuen'' present slight orthographic irregularities in their conjugation due to the sequences /ɡe/ and /ɡi/ requiring a silent ''u'' in the Latin orthography yielding ''singo'' for 'I sing' but ''sing'''u'''es'' for 'you sing' (still pronounced /ˈsin.ɡes/).
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By contrast, the past and future tenses are constructed using an auxiliary verb, in a way that should be familiar to speakers of most Western European languages.
By contrast, the past and future tenses are constructed using an auxiliary verb, in a way that should be familiar to speakers of most Western European languages.


The '''past tense''' is formed with an auxiliary verb followed by a passive participle. Most verbs require the auxiliary ''aven'' (to have) which is followed by the base form of the participle (generally ending in ''-el'') as in ''ye '''au sanguel''''' for 'I sang / I have sung'. On the other hand, reflexive verbs, motion verbs and other verbs that relate to a change affecting the subject such as ''groven'' (to grow) require using ''seinen'' (to be) as their auxiliary, which must then be followed by a passive participle agreeing with the subject in gender and number. For instance, a male speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesel''''' for 'I \[have\] left', whereas a female speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesela'''''. This distinction parallels that of French verbs that form their past with ''être'' as their auxiliary followed by participles showing agreement (''Je suis parti'' / ''Je suis partie'') instead of the usual ''avoir'' auxiliary followed by invariable participles (''J'ai chanté''), which means that incorporating this feature to Europaico should make the language even easier to learn for the whole ''Francophonie''.
The '''past tense''' is formed with an auxiliary verb followed by a passive participle. Most verbs require the auxiliary ''aven'' (to have) which is followed by the base form of the participle (generally ending in ''-el'') as in ''ye '''au sanguel''''' for 'I sang / I have sung'. On the other hand, reflexive verbs, motion verbs and other verbs that relate to a change affecting the subject such as ''groven'' (to grow) require using ''seinen'' (to be) as their auxiliary, which must then be followed by a passive participle agreeing with the subject in gender and number. For instance, a male speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesel''''' for 'I [have] left', whereas a female speaker would say ''ye '''sin forlesela'''''. This distinction parallels that of French verbs that form their past with ''être'' as their auxiliary followed by participles showing agreement (''Je suis parti'' / ''Je suis partie'') instead of the usual ''avoir'' auxiliary followed by invariable participles (''J'ai chanté''), which means that incorporating this feature to Europaico should make the language even easier to learn for the whole ''Francophonie''.


Only the present tense form of the auxiliaries is used for this purpose (there is no equivalent in Europaico to past perfect or pluperfect constructions such as English 'he had sung' or French ''« il avait chanté »''). With this fact in mind, past tense forms as exemplified with ''helpen'' (to help, past stem ''holp-'', auxiliary ''aven'') and ''comen'' (to come, past stem ''cam-'', auxiliary ''seinen) are as follows:
Only the present tense form of the auxiliaries is used for this purpose (there is no equivalent in Europaico to past perfect or pluperfect constructions such as English 'he had sung' or French ''« il avait chanté »''). With this fact in mind, past tense forms as exemplified with ''helpen'' (to help, past stem ''holp-'', auxiliary ''aven'') and ''comen'' (to come, past stem ''cam-'', auxiliary ''seinen) are as follows:


| '''Subject'''                 | '''''Helpen'''''   | '''''Comen''''' (fem.) | '''''Comen''''' (masc.) | '''''Comen''''' (neu.) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | -------------- | ------------------ | ------------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''''Helpen''''' !! '''''Comen''''' (fem.) !! '''''Comen''''' (masc.) !! '''''Comen''''' (neu.)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''au holpel''   | ''sin camela''       | ''sin camel''         | ''sin camelo''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''as holpel''   | ''es camela''       | ''es camel''         | ''es camelo''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''au holpel'' || ''sin camela'' || ''sin camel'' || ''sin camelo''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''a holpel''     | ''is camela''       | ''is camel''         | ''is camelo''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''avens holpel'' | ''sins cameles''     | ''sins camelis''     | ''sins camelis''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''as holpel'' || ''es camela'' || ''es camel'' || ''es camelo''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''aveť holpel'' | ''seť cameles''     | ''seť camelis''       | ''seť camelis''     |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''an holpel''   | ''sin cameles''     | ''sin camelis''       | ''sin camelis''     |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''a holpel'' || ''is camela'' || ''is camel'' || ''is camelo''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''avens holpel'' || ''sins cameles'' || ''sins camelis'' || ''sins camelis''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''aveť holpel'' || ''seť cameles'' || ''seť camelis'' || ''seť camelis''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''an holpel'' || ''sin cameles'' || ''sin camelis'' || ''sin camelis''
|}


Meanwhile, the '''future tense''' is formed with ''guien'' (to go) as an auxiliary verb followed by the infinitive form of the verb. The resulting wording, as in ''ye guic singuen'', matches English 'I am going to sing', Spanish ''"voy a cantar"'' and French ''« je vais chanter »'' among others, making this a fairly sensible for a once.  As an example, the future tense forms of ''helpen'' are as follows:
Meanwhile, the '''future tense''' is formed with ''guien'' (to go) as an auxiliary verb followed by the infinitive form of the verb. The resulting wording, as in ''ye guic singuen'', matches English 'I am going to sing', Spanish ''"voy a cantar"'' and French ''« je vais chanter »'' among others, making this a fairly sensible for a once.  As an example, the future tense forms of ''helpen'' are as follows:


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Future''' (`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Future''' (`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''guic helpen''     |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''guis helpen''     |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''guic helpen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''gui helpen''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''guens helpen''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''guis helpen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''gueť helpen''     |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''guen helpen''     |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''gui helpen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''guens helpen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''gueť helpen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''guen helpen''
|}


In principle, it would be possible to combine the constructions for past and future tenses in order to refer to things that ''were'' going to happen but perhaps didn't (''\''ye au gal helpen'' for 'I was going to help') or things that are will ''have'' happened by a certain point. (''\''ye guic aven holpel''). Whether such constructions would actually be permitted in Europaico is intentionally left ambiguous, although anyone willing to use them probably should also allow pluperfect tenses such as ''\''\''ye au adel holpel'' for 'I had sung' after all. If you'd rather keep things simple, ignoring this whole paragraph (if not the article as a whole) might be a better option.
In principle, it would be possible to combine the constructions for past and future tenses in order to refer to things that ''were'' going to happen but perhaps didn't (''*'ye au gal helpen'' for 'I was going to help') or things that are will ''have'' happened by a certain point. (''*'ye guic aven holpel''). Whether such constructions would actually be permitted in Europaico is intentionally left ambiguous, although anyone willing to use them probably should also allow pluperfect tenses such as ''*'*'ye au adel holpel'' for 'I had sung' after all. If you'd rather keep things simple, ignoring this whole paragraph (if not the article as a whole) might be a better option.


===== Imperatives =====
===== Imperatives =====
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For regular verbs such as ''helpen'', imperatives are formed by combining the present stem with the suffix ''-i'' for singular or ''-iť'' for plural imperatives:
For regular verbs such as ''helpen'', imperatives are formed by combining the present stem with the suffix ''-i'' for singular or ''-iť'' for plural imperatives:


| '''Subject number''' | '''Formality''' | '''Imperative''' |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------ | ------------- | -------------- |
! '''Subject number''' !! '''Formality''' !! '''Imperative'''
| Singular           | Informal     | ''helpi''       |
|-
| Singular           | Formal       | ''helpiť''       |
| Singular || Informal || ''helpi''
| Plural             | Any           | ''helpiť''       |
|-
| Singular || Formal || ''helpiť''
|-
| Plural || Any || ''helpiť''
|}


While not mandatory, subjects are typically omitted in imperative sentences; ''Me helpi!'' would be a more common wording for 'Help me!' than ''Tü me helpi!''. Using a explicit pronoun might be required to resolve ambiguity in cases where it is unclear whether a plural imperative was given to a single person (addressed with formal ''Vi'') within a group or to the group as a whole (second person plural ''vis'' or ''ves'').
While not mandatory, subjects are typically omitted in imperative sentences; ''Me helpi!'' would be a more common wording for 'Help me!' than ''Tü me helpi!''. Using a explicit pronoun might be required to resolve ambiguity in cases where it is unclear whether a plural imperative was given to a single person (addressed with formal ''Vi'') within a group or to the group as a whole (second person plural ''vis'' or ''ves'').
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While imperatives can only be formed for second person subjects, constructions about mandatory or suggested actions for other subjects can be expressed using modal verbs such as ''lesen'' (let) or ''musten'' (must):
While imperatives can only be formed for second person subjects, constructions about mandatory or suggested actions for other subjects can be expressed using modal verbs such as ''lesen'' (let) or ''musten'' (must):
- ''El muste te helpen!'' - He must help you!
* ''El muste te helpen!'' - He must help you!
- ''Ens lesens helpen!'' - Let's help!
* ''Ens lesens helpen!'' - Let's help!


==== Irregular verbs ====
==== Irregular verbs ====
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The verb ''seyen'' (to see) proves to be a particularly fitting example as it features semi-vocalic stems both in the present tense (''sey-''/''sei-'') and in the past tense (''sav-''/''sau-''), although the latter doesn't affect the paradigm much.
The verb ''seyen'' (to see) proves to be a particularly fitting example as it features semi-vocalic stems both in the present tense (''sey-''/''sei-'') and in the past tense (''sav-''/''sau-''), although the latter doesn't affect the paradigm much.


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''seyen''   |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | --------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''seyen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''seyendo'' |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''aven''
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''savel''   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''sei''     |
| '''Active participle''' || ''seyendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''seyeť''   |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''savel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''sei''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''seyeť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''seic''             | ''saveic''                   | ''au savel''       | ''guic seyen''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''seis''             | ''saveis''                   | ''as savel''       | ''guis seyen''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''seic'' || ''saveic'' || ''au savel'' || ''guic seyen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''sei''               | ''savei''                   | ''a savel''       | ''gui seyen''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''seyens''           | ''saveyens''                 | ''avens savel''   | ''guens seyen''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''seis'' || ''saveis'' || ''as savel'' || ''guis seyen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''seyeť''             | ''saveyeť''                 | ''aveť savel''     | ''gueť seyen''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''seyen''             | ''saveyen''                 | ''an savel''       | ''guen seyen''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''sei'' || ''savei'' || ''a savel'' || ''gui seyen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''seyens'' || ''saveyens'' || ''avens savel'' || ''guens seyen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''seyeť'' || ''saveyeť'' || ''aveť savel'' || ''gueť seyen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''seyen'' || ''saveyen'' || ''an savel'' || ''guen seyen''
|}


Forms for other semi-vocalic verbs can be constructed replacing ''sei-'' and ''sey-'' for the appropriate vocalic and consonant stems for the present, and ''sav-'' for the appropriate past stem, with the sole exception that ''Vi'' imperatives take the suffix ''-iť'' for verbs for stems ending in ''v'' as in ''groviť'' for 'Grow!' (the form ending in ''-eť'' found in ''seyeť'', 'See!', is a result of Europaico's phonotactic restriction disallowing /ji/).
Forms for other semi-vocalic verbs can be constructed replacing ''sei-'' and ''sey-'' for the appropriate vocalic and consonant stems for the present, and ''sav-'' for the appropriate past stem, with the sole exception that ''Vi'' imperatives take the suffix ''-iť'' for verbs for stems ending in ''v'' as in ''groviť'' for 'Grow!' (the form ending in ''-eť'' found in ''seyeť'', 'See!', is a result of Europaico's phonotactic restriction disallowing /ji/).
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====== ''aven'' (to have, `PST` marker) ======
====== ''aven'' (to have, `PST` marker) ======
{| class="wikitable"
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''aven''
|-
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''aven''
|-
| '''Active participle''' || ''abendo''
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''adel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''avi''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''aviť''
|}


| '''Infinitive'''          | ''aven''  |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | -------- |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''  |
|-
| '''Active participle'''    | ''abendo'' |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''au'' || ''adeic'' || ''au adel'' || ''guic aven''
| '''Passive participle'''  | ''adel''  |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')    | ''avi''    |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''as'' || ''adeis'' || ''as adel'' || ''guis aven''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')    | ''aviť''  |
|-
 
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''a'' || ''adei'' || ''a adel'' || ''gui aven''
| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
|-
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''avens'' || ''adens'' || ''avens adel'' || ''guens aven''
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''au''               | ''adeic''                   | ''au adel''       | ''guic aven''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''as''               | ''adeis''                   | ''as adel''       | ''guis aven''       |
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''aveť'' || ''adeť'' || ''aveť adel'' || ''gueť aven''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''a''                 | ''adei''                     | ''a adel''         | ''gui aven''         |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''avens''             | ''adens''                   | ''avens adel''     | ''guens aven''       |
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''an'' || ''aden'' || ''an adel'' || ''guen aven''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''aveť''             | ''adeť''                     | ''aveť adel''     | ''gueť aven''       |
|}
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''an''               | ''aden''                     | ''an adel''       | ''guen aven''       |


====== ''canen'' (can, to be able) ======
====== ''canen'' (can, to be able) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen''                     |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''canen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''canendo''                   |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || (depends on following verb)
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''conel''                     |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''cani''                     |
| '''Active participle''' || ''canendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''caniť''                     |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''conel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''cani''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''caniť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''canc''             | ''coneic''                   | ''au conel''       | ''guic seyen''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''cans''             | ''coneis''                   | ''as conel''       | ''guis seyen''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''canc'' || ''coneic'' || ''au conel'' || ''guic seyen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''can''               | ''conei''                   | ''a conel''       | ''gui seyen''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''canens''           | ''coneyens''                 | ''avens conel''   | ''guens seyen''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''cans'' || ''coneis'' || ''as conel'' || ''guis seyen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''caneť''             | ''coneyeť''                 | ''aveť conel''     | ''gueť seyen''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''canen''             | ''coneyen''                 | ''an conel''       | ''guen seyen''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''can'' || ''conei'' || ''a conel'' || ''gui seyen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''canens'' || ''coneyens'' || ''avens conel'' || ''guens seyen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''caneť'' || ''coneyeť'' || ''aveť conel'' || ''gueť seyen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''canen'' || ''coneyen'' || ''an conel'' || ''guen seyen''
|}


====== ''doen'' (to do) ======
====== ''doen'' (to do) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen'' |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | -------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''doen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''doendo'' |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''aven''
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''del''   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''doi''   |
| '''Active participle''' || ''doendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''doiť''   |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''del''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''doi''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''doiť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''doc''               | ''deic''                     | ''au dnel''       | ''guic doen''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''does''             | ''deis''                     | ''as del''         | ''guis doen''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''doc'' || ''deic'' || ''au dnel'' || ''guic doen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''doe''               | ''dei''                     | ''a del''         | ''gui doen''         |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''doens''             | ''deyens''                   | ''avens del''     | ''guens doen''       |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''does'' || ''deis'' || ''as del'' || ''guis doen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''doeť''             | ''deyeť''                   | ''aveť del''       | ''gueť doen''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''doen''             | ''deyen''                   | ''an del''         | ''guen doen''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''doe'' || ''dei'' || ''a del'' || ''gui doen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''doens'' || ''deyens'' || ''avens del'' || ''guens doen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''doeť'' || ''deyeť'' || ''aveť del'' || ''gueť doen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''doen'' || ''deyen'' || ''an del'' || ''guen doen''
|}


====== ''esen'' (to eat) ======
====== ''esen'' (to eat) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''esen''   |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | -------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''esen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''aven''   |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''esendo'' |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''aven''
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''atel''   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''esi''   |
| '''Active participle''' || ''esendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''esiť''   |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''atel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''esi''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''esiť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''esc''               | ''ateic''                   | ''au atel''       | ''guic esen''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''ets''               | ''ateis''                   | ''as atel''       | ''guis esen''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''esc'' || ''ateic'' || ''au atel'' || ''guic esen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''et''               | ''atei''                     | ''a atel''         | ''gui esen''         |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''esens''             | ''ateyens''                 | ''avens atel''     | ''guens esen''       |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''ets'' || ''ateis'' || ''as atel'' || ''guis esen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''eseť''             | ''ateyeť''                   | ''aveť atel''     | ''gueť esen''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''esen''             | ''ateyen''                   | ''an atel''       | ''guen esen''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''et'' || ''atei'' || ''a atel'' || ''gui esen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''esens'' || ''ateyens'' || ''avens atel'' || ''guens esen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''eseť'' || ''ateyeť'' || ''aveť atel'' || ''gueť esen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''esen'' || ''ateyen'' || ''an atel'' || ''guen esen''
|}


====== ''guien'' (to go, to walk, `FUT` marker) ======
====== ''guien'' (to go, to walk, `FUT` marker) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''canen'' |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | -------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''guien''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''seinen'' |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''guendo'' |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''seinen''
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''gal''   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''gui''   |
| '''Active participle''' || ''guendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''guiť''   |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''gal''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''gui''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''guiť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''guic''             | ''gaic''                     | ''sin gal''       | ''guic guien''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''guis''             | ''gais''                     | ''es gal''         | ''guis guien''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''guic'' || ''gaic'' || ''sin gal'' || ''guic guien''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''gui''               | ''gai''                     | ''is gal''         | ''gui guien''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''guens''             | ''gayens''                   | ''sins galis''     | ''guens guien''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''guis'' || ''gais'' || ''es gal'' || ''guis guien''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''gueť''             | ''gayeť''                   | ''seť galis''     | ''gueť guien''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''guen''             | ''gayen''                   | ''sin galis''     | ''guen guien''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''gui'' || ''gai'' || ''is gal'' || ''gui guien''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''guens'' || ''gayens'' || ''sins galis'' || ''guens guien''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''gueť'' || ''gayeť'' || ''seť galis'' || ''gueť guien''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''guen'' || ''gayen'' || ''sin galis'' || ''guen guien''
|}


====== ''lesen'' (to leave, to let, to allow) ======
====== ''lesen'' (to leave, to let, to allow) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''lesen''                     |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''lesen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''lesendo''                   |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || (depends on following verb)
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''lasel''                     |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''lesi''                     |
| '''Active participle''' || ''lesendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''lesiť''                     |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''lasel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''lesi''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''lesiť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''lesc''             | ''laseic''                   | ''au lasel''       | ''guic lesen''       |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''lets''             | ''laseis''                   | ''as lasel''       | ''guis lesen''       |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''lesc'' || ''laseic'' || ''au lasel'' || ''guic lesen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''let''               | ''lasei''                   | ''a lasel''       | ''gui lesen''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''lesens''           | ''laseyens''                 | ''avens lasel''   | ''guens lesen''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''lets'' || ''laseis'' || ''as lasel'' || ''guis lesen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''leseť''             | ''laseyeť''                 | ''aveť lasel''     | ''gueť lesen''       |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''lesen''             | ''laseyen''                 | ''an lasel''       | ''guen lesen''       |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''let'' || ''lasei'' || ''a lasel'' || ''gui lesen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''lesens'' || ''laseyens'' || ''avens lasel'' || ''guens lesen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''leseť'' || ''laseyeť'' || ''aveť lasel'' || ''gueť lesen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''lesen'' || ''laseyen'' || ''an lasel'' || ''guen lesen''
|}


====== ''musten'' (must, to have to) ======
====== ''musten'' (must, to have to) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''musten''                   |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | --------------------------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''musten''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | (depends on following verb) |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''mustendo''                 |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || (depends on following verb)
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''mostel''                   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | -                           |
| '''Active participle''' || ''mustendo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | -                           |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''mostel''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || -
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || -
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''musto''             | ''mosteic''                 | ''au mosel''       | ''guic musten''     |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''musts''             | ''mosteis''                 | ''as mosel''       | ''guis musten''     |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''musto'' || ''mosteic'' || ''au mosel'' || ''guic musten''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''must''             | ''mostei''                   | ''a mosel''       | ''gui musten''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''mustens''           | ''mosteyens''               | ''avens mosel''   | ''guens musten''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''musts'' || ''mosteis'' || ''as mosel'' || ''guis musten''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''musteť''           | ''mosteyeť''                 | ''aveť mosel''     | ''gueť musten''     |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''musten''           | ''mosteyen''                 | ''an mosel''       | ''guen musten''     |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''must'' || ''mostei'' || ''a mosel'' || ''gui musten''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''mustens'' || ''mosteyens'' || ''avens mosel'' || ''guens musten''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''musteť'' || ''mosteyeť'' || ''aveť mosel'' || ''gueť musten''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''musten'' || ''mosteyen'' || ''an mosel'' || ''guen musten''
|}


====== ''seinen'' (to be, PST marker) ======
====== ''seinen'' (to be, PST marker) ======


| '''Infinitive'''           | ''seinen'' |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------------------------ | -------- |
! '''Infinitive''' !! ''seinen''
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' | ''seinen'' |
|-
| '''Active participle'''   | ''sindo'' |
| '''Past tense auxiliary''' || ''seinen''
| '''Passive participle'''   | ''bül''   |
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'')   | ''bi''     |
| '''Active participle''' || ''sindo''
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'')   | ''biť''   |
|-
| '''Passive participle''' || ''bül''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''tü'') || ''bi''
|-
| '''Imperative''' (''Vi'') || ''biť''
|}


| '''Subject'''                 | '''Present''' (`PRS`) | '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) | '''Past''' (`PST`) | '''Future '''(`FUT`) |
{| class="wikitable"
| --------------------------- | ------------------- | -------------------------- | ---------------- | ------------------ |
! '''Subject''' !! '''Present''' (`PRS`) !! '''Imperfect''' (`PST.IPFV`) !! '''Past''' (`PST`) !! '''Future '''(`FUT`)
| ''Ye'' (`1s`)                 | ''sin''               | ''seineic''                 | ''sin bül''       | ''guic seinen''     |
|-
| ''Tü'' (`2s`)                 | ''es''               | ''seineis''                 | ''es bül''         | ''guis seinen''     |
| ''Ye'' (`1s`) || ''sin'' || ''seineic'' || ''sin bül'' || ''guic seinen''
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`)       | ''is''               | ''seinei''                   | ''is bül''         | ''gui seinen''       |
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`)           | ''sins''             | ''seineyens''               | ''sins bülis''     | ''guens seinen''     |
| ''Tü'' (`2s`) || ''es'' || ''seineis'' || ''es bül'' || ''guis seinen''
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) | ''seť''               | ''seineyeť''                 | ''seť bülis''     | ''gueť seinen''     |
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`)         | ''sin''               | ''seineyen''                 | ''sin bülis''     | ''guen seinen''     |
| ''El, ela, elo'' (`3s`) || ''is'' || ''seinei'' || ''is bül'' || ''gui seinen''
|-
| ''Nis, nes'' (`1p`) || ''sins'' || ''seineyens'' || ''sins bülis'' || ''guens seinen''
|-
| ''Vi, vis, ves'' (`2s`, `2p`) || ''seť'' || ''seineyeť'' || ''seť bülis'' || ''gueť seinen''
|-
| ''Elis, eles'' (`3p`) || ''sin'' || ''seineyen'' || ''sin bülis'' || ''guen seinen''
|}


=== Syntax ===
=== Syntax ===
Line 873: Line 1,014:
Digits are mostly borrowed from Greek, although influences from other languages is also present:
Digits are mostly borrowed from Greek, although influences from other languages is also present:


| Number | Europaico numeral | Notes                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
{| class="wikitable"
| ------ | ----------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
! Number !! Europaico numeral !! Notes
| '''0''' | ''zero''           | Internationalism.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|-
| '''1''' | ''ena''             | From Greek ''ένα'', also similar to German ''ein''. Identical to the feminine form of the indefinite article ''en/ena/eno''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| '''0''' || ''zero'' || Internationalism.
| '''2''' | ''düs''             | From the Greek-based prefix ''di-'', its source the Ancient Greek adverb ''δῐ́ς'', Albanian ''dy'' and Romance words such as Spanish ''dos'' and Portuguese ''dois''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
|-
| '''3''' | ''tris''           | From the Greek-based prefix ''tri-'' and words for 'three' in multiple Indo-European languages from Europe.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
| '''1''' || ''ena'' || From Greek ''ένα'', also similar to German ''ein''. Identical to the feminine form of the indefinite article ''en/ena/eno''.
| '''4''' | ''quear''           | From Manx Gaelic ''kiare'' /kʲeːə(r)/ which somehow resembles cognates such as French ''quatre''. Despite the fact that Romance, Slavic and Germanic words for 'four' ultimately share the same Indo-European root ''\''kʷetwóres'', modern reflexes have diverged so much that one could scarcely find common ground among them. Since Europaico was severely lacking in Celtic representation, a Manx Gaelic word was chosen, an obvious choice obeying to the Isle of Man position between the territories of Goidelic and Brittonic languages. |
|-
| '''5''' | ''pinta''           | Mainly from the Greek-based prefix ''penta-'' although also influenced by the ''i'' found in Romance words for 'fifth' such as ''quinta'' (found in Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan and Italian among others).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
| '''2''' || ''düs'' || From the Greek-based prefix ''di-'', its source the Ancient Greek adverb ''δῐ́ς'', Albanian ''dy'' and Romance words such as Spanish ''dos'' and Portuguese ''dois''.
| '''6''' | ''secsa''           | From the Greek-based prefix ''hexa-'', its Latin counterpart ''sex(a)-'' and many words for 'six' in Indo-European languages including German ''sechs''.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
|-
| '''7''' | ''septa''           | A similar derivation to that from ''secsa'', inspired by the prefixes ''hepta-'', ''sept(a)-'' and various words for 'seven' or 'seventh' (such as Spanish ''séptimo'').                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
| '''3''' || ''tris'' || From the Greek-based prefix ''tri-'' and words for 'three' in multiple Indo-European languages from Europe.
| '''8''' | ''octa''           | From the Greek and Latin-based prefixes ''octo-/octa-''. The form with a final ''-a'' was chosen to agree with the previous numerals.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|-
| '''9''' | ''nona''           | From the Latin prefix ''nona-'', keeping the pattern from previous numerals.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
| '''4''' || ''quear'' || From Manx Gaelic ''kiare'' /kʲeːə(r)/ which somehow resembles cognates such as French ''quatre''. Despite the fact that Romance, Slavic and Germanic words for 'four' ultimately share the same Indo-European root ''*'kʷetwóres'', modern reflexes have diverged so much that one could scarcely find common ground among them. Since Europaico was severely lacking in Celtic representation, a Manx Gaelic word was chosen, an obvious choice obeying to the Isle of Man position between the territories of Goidelic and Brittonic languages.
|-
| '''5''' || ''pinta'' || Mainly from the Greek-based prefix ''penta-'' although also influenced by the ''i'' found in Romance words for 'fifth' such as ''quinta'' (found in Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan and Italian among others).
|-
| '''6''' || ''secsa'' || From the Greek-based prefix ''hexa-'', its Latin counterpart ''sex(a)-'' and many words for 'six' in Indo-European languages including German ''sechs''.
|-
| '''7''' || ''septa'' || A similar derivation to that from ''secsa'', inspired by the prefixes ''hepta-'', ''sept(a)-'' and various words for 'seven' or 'seventh' (such as Spanish ''séptimo'').
|-
| '''8''' || ''octa'' || From the Greek and Latin-based prefixes ''octo-/octa-''. The form with a final ''-a'' was chosen to agree with the previous numerals.
|-
| '''9''' || ''nona'' || From the Latin prefix ''nona-'', keeping the pattern from previous numerals.
|}


Europaico's word for '''10''' is ''deç'', a word inspired both by Romance forms of the numeral (such as Spanish ''diez'', Portuguese ''dez'' and Occitan ''dètz'') and by Slavic cognates such as Czech ''deset'', Ukrainian ''де́сять'' and Macedonian ''де́сет''.
Europaico's word for '''10''' is ''deç'', a word inspired both by Romance forms of the numeral (such as Spanish ''diez'', Portuguese ''dez'' and Occitan ''dètz'') and by Slavic cognates such as Czech ''deset'', Ukrainian ''де́сять'' and Macedonian ''де́сет''.
Line 890: Line 1,042:
Numerals from '''11''' to '''19''' are regularly formed by adding the suffix ''-nast'' (taken from Slavic sources) to the digit for the units position: ''enanast'', ''düsnast'', ''trisnast'' through ''nonanast''.
Numerals from '''11''' to '''19''' are regularly formed by adding the suffix ''-nast'' (taken from Slavic sources) to the digit for the units position: ''enanast'', ''düsnast'', ''trisnast'' through ''nonanast''.


Words for multiples of ten from '''20''' to '''90''' are formed by suffixing ''-deç'' to the appropriate digit, from ''düsdeç'' for twenty to ''nonadeç'' for ninety. Unfortunately, this means that French-speakers learning this language will have to do some math to work out that the numeral for ninety is formed as ''nonadeç'' rather than something that would come more naturally to them such as ''\''\''quear-düsdeç-deç''.
Words for multiples of ten from '''20''' to '''90''' are formed by suffixing ''-deç'' to the appropriate digit, from ''düsdeç'' for twenty to ''nonadeç'' for ninety. Unfortunately, this means that French-speakers learning this language will have to do some math to work out that the numeral for ninety is formed as ''nonadeç'' rather than something that would come more naturally to them such as ''*'*'quear-düsdeç-deç''.


On the other hand, in order to make the language more accessible to German and Polish speakers, among others, other numbers below 100 are formed placing the units ''before'' the tens, as in ''quear düsdeç'' for 24 (literally 'four \[and\] twenty').
On the other hand, in order to make the language more accessible to German and Polish speakers, among others, other numbers below 100 are formed placing the units ''before'' the tens, as in ''quear düsdeç'' for 24 (literally 'four [and] twenty').


All other positions are formed as in English, with the higher positions coming up first, each formed by a digit numeral followed by a SI-based term for the power of ten as in ''ena hecto'' for 100 (literally one hundred) or ''ena quilo düs hecto quear trisdeç'' for 1234 (literally one thousand two hundred four thirty).
All other positions are formed as in English, with the higher positions coming up first, each formed by a digit numeral followed by a SI-based term for the power of ten as in ''ena hecto'' for 100 (literally one hundred) or ''ena quilo düs hecto quear trisdeç'' for 1234 (literally one thousand two hundred four thirty).
Line 904: Line 1,056:
The following are a set of sample sentences designed to showcase aspects of the Europaico grammar. These are given in the Europaico and Latin alphabets along with an IPA phonemic transcription.
The following are a set of sample sentences designed to showcase aspects of the Europaico grammar. These are given in the Europaico and Latin alphabets along with an IPA phonemic transcription.


> '''Eɴ мɤz кaı eɴa zeɴa гaεɴ.'''
Intransitive, affirmative:
> '''''En muz cai ena zena gayen.'''''
 
> /en muz kai̯ ˈe.na ˈze.na ˈɡa.jen/
* '''Eɴ мɤz кaı eɴa zeɴa гaεɴ.'''
> ''en                muz  cai  ena            zena    gayen''
* '''''En muz cai ena zena gayen.'''''
> INDF.SG.M  man  and  INDF.SG.F  woman  go.IPF.3p
* /en muz kai̯ ˈe.na ˈze.na ˈɡa.jen/
> '''A man and a woman were walking.'''
* ''en                muz  cai  ena            zena    gayen''
* INDF.SG.M  man  and  INDF.SG.F  woman  go.IPF.3p
* '''A man and a woman were walking.'''
 
Transitive, question:
 
* '''Ke сeεɴ ʌeс zeɴeс ʌıс мɤzıс?'''
* '''''Que seyen les zenes lis muzis?'''''
* /ke ˈse.jen les ˈze.nes lis ˈmu.zis/
* ''que  seyen          les          zen-es            lis            muz-is''
* INT  see.PRS.3p  DEF.PL.F  woman-PL.F  DEF.PL.C  man-PL.C
* '''Do the women see the men?'''
 
Ditransitive, negative:


> '''Ke сeεɴ ʌeс zeɴeс ʌıс мɤzıс?'''  
* '''Є ɴe τ’aɤ гaweʌ ɴıћ eʌ кaмeɴ бaρo.'''
> '''''Que seyen les zenes lis muzis?'''''
* '''''Ye ne t’au gavel niť el camen baro.'''''
> /ke ˈse.jen les ˈze.nes lis ˈmu.zis/
* /je ne tau̯ ɡaˈvel nic el ˈka.men ˈba.ʀo/
> ''que seyen          les          zen-es            lis            muz-is''
* ''ye ne      te        au        gav-el              niť    el              camen  bar-o''
> INT see.PRS.3p DEF.PL.F woman-PL.F DEF.PL.C man-PL.C
* 1s  NEG 2.ACC  PST.1s give.PST-PTCP NEG DEF.SG.M stone  heavy-SG.C
> '''Do the women see the men?'''
* I didn’t give you the heavy stone.


> '''Є ɴe τ’aɤ гaweʌ ɴıћ eʌ кaмeɴ бaρo.''' 
With relative clauses:
> '''''Ye ne t’au gavel niť el camen baro.'''''
> /je ne tau̯ ɡaˈvel nic el ˈka.men ˈba.ʀo/
> ''ye  ne      te        au        gav-el              niť    el              camen  bar-o''
> 1s  NEG  2.ACC  PST.1s  give.PST-PTCP  NEG  DEF.SG.M  stone  heavy-SG.C
> I didn’t give you the heavy stone.


> '''Λa oсoбa, кe τʋ aс сaweʌ, фaɴгe ʌa пτıцa, кı ʌıс ∂ʋс đeћıс мıɴıс a фaɴ∂eʌ.'''
* '''Λa oсoбa, кe τʋ aс сaweʌ, фaɴгe ʌa пτıцa, кı ʌıс ∂ʋс đeћıс мıɴıс a фaɴ∂eʌ.'''
> '''''La osoba, que tü as savel, fangue la ptiça, qui lis düs ďeťis minis a fandel.'''''
* '''''La osoba, que tü as savel, fangue la ptiça, qui lis düs ďeťis minis a fandel.'''''
> /la oˈso.ba ke ty as saˈvel ˈfaŋ.ɡe la ˈpti.tsa ki lis dys ˈɟe.cis ˈmi,nis a fanˈdel/
* /la oˈso.ba ke ty as saˈvel ˈfaŋ.ɡe la ˈpti.tsa ki lis dys ˈɟe.cis ˈmi,nis a fanˈdel/
> ''la            osoba    que        tü  as        sav-el              fang-e            la            ptiça''
* ''la            osoba    que        tü  as        sav-el              fang-e            la            ptiça''
> DEF.SG.F  person  REL.OBL  2s  PST.2s  see.PST-PTCP  catch-PRS.3s  DEF.SG.F  bird
* DEF.SG.F  person  REL.OBL  2s  PST.2s  see.PST-PTCP  catch-PRS.3s  DEF.SG.F  bird
> ''qui            lis            düs  ďeť-is        min-is            a        fand-el''
* ''qui            lis            düs  ďeť-is        min-is            a        fand-el''
> REL.NOM  DEF.PL.C  two  child-PL.C  1s.POS-PL.C  PST.3s  find.PST-PTCP
* REL.NOM  DEF.PL.C  two  child-PL.C  1s.POS-PL.C  PST.3s  find.PST-PTCP
> '''The person you saw is catching the bird that found my two children.'''
* '''The person you saw is catching the bird that found my two children.'''


=== Schleicher's Fable ===
=== Schleicher's Fable ===
Line 940: Line 1,100:
The text of the fable, in English, is as follows:
The text of the fable, in English, is as follows:


> '''The Sheep and the Horses'''
* '''The Sheep and the Horses'''
>
*
>On a hill, sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly.
* On a hill, sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly.
>
*
>The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses."
* The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses."
>
*
>The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool."
* The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool."
>
*
>Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.
* Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain.


The Europaico translation in the Europaico script is as follows:
The Europaico translation in the Europaico script is as follows:


> '''Λa Owцa кaı ʌıс Koɴıс'''
* '''Λa Owцa кaı ʌıс Koɴıс'''
>
*
> Eпı eɴ пaгoρeк, eɴa owцa, кı wɤʌɴa ɴe a∂eı ɴıћ, a сaweʌ кoɴıс: eɴ кoɴ кı τρoкeı eɴ woz бaρo, eɴ кoɴ кı бoρeı eɴa τowaρa мeгa кaı eɴ кoɴ кı бoρeı τaкaмeɴτ eɴ мɤz.
* Eпı eɴ пaгoρeк, eɴa owцa, кı wɤʌɴa ɴe a∂eı ɴıћ, a сaweʌ кoɴıс: eɴ кoɴ кı τρoкeı eɴ woz бaρo, eɴ кoɴ кı бoρeı eɴa τowaρa мeгa кaı eɴ кoɴ кı бoρeı τaкaмeɴτ eɴ мɤz.
>
*
> Λa owцa a сaгeʌ пρo кoɴıс: « Λo сeρцe мıɴo мe ∂oe бoʌ сeεɴ∂o eɴ мɤz кı ∂ρıwe кoɴıс ».
* Λa owцa a сaгeʌ пρo кoɴıс: « Λo сeρцe мıɴo мe ∂oe бoʌ сeεɴ∂o eɴ мɤz кı ∂ρıwe кoɴıс ».
>
*
> Λıс кoɴıс aɴ сaгeʌ: « Owцa, ʌıсτı! Λıс сeρцıс мıɴıс ɴıс ∂oeɴ бoʌ кɤaɴ∂o ɴıс сeεɴс кeсτo: eɴ мɤz, eʌ гoспo∂aρ, weρaɴ∂eρe ʌa wɤʌɴa ∂eс owцa'с ɴa eɴ пʌaшτ τeρмo пρo сı. Kaı ɴɤɴ ʌa owцa ɴ'a ɴıћ wɤʌɴa. »
* Λıс кoɴıс aɴ сaгeʌ: « Owцa, ʌıсτı! Λıс сeρцıс мıɴıс ɴıс ∂oeɴ бoʌ кɤaɴ∂o ɴıс сeεɴс кeсτo: eɴ мɤz, eʌ гoспo∂aρ, weρaɴ∂eρe ʌa wɤʌɴa ∂eс owцa'с ɴa eɴ пʌaшτ τeρмo пρo сı. Kaı ɴɤɴ ʌa owцa ɴ'a ɴıћ wɤʌɴa. »
>
*
> Λa owцa a xeρeʌ кeсτo кaı ıс фʌoxeʌa ɴa ʌa ρowɴıɴa.
* Λa owцa a xeρeʌ кeсτo кaı ıс фʌoxeʌa ɴa ʌa ρowɴıɴa.


In the Latin alphabet:
In the Latin alphabet:


> '''La Ovça cai lis Conis'''
* '''La Ovça cai lis Conis'''
>
*
>Epi en pagorec, ena ovça, qui vulna ne adei niť, a savel conis: en con qui troquei en voz baro, en con qui borei ena tovara mega cai en con qui borei tacament en muz.
* Epi en pagorec, ena ovça, qui vulna ne adei niť, a savel conis: en con qui troquei en voz baro, en con qui borei ena tovara mega cai en con qui borei tacament en muz.
>
*
>La ovça a sagel pro conis: « Lo serce mino me doe bol seyendo en muz qui drive conis ».
* La ovça a sagel pro conis: « Lo serce mino me doe bol seyendo en muz qui drive conis ».
>
*
>Lis conis an sagel: « Ovça, listi! Lis sercis minis nis doen bol cuando nis seyens questo: en muz, el gospodar, verandere la vulna des ovça's na en plašt termo pro si. Cai nun la ovça n'a niť vulna. »
* Lis conis an sagel: « Ovça, listi! Lis sercis minis nis doen bol cuando nis seyens questo: en muz, el gospodar, verandere la vulna des ovça's na en plašt termo pro si. Cai nun la ovça n'a niť vulna. »
>
*
> La ovça a herel questo cai is flohela na la rovnina.
* La ovça a herel questo cai is flohela na la rovnina.


Interlinear glosses and phonetic transcriptions are given in the following section.
Interlinear glosses and phonetic transcriptions are given in the following section.
Line 978: Line 1,138:
==== Glosses ====
==== Glosses ====


> '''''La Ovça cai lis Conis'''''
'''''La Ovça cai lis Conis'''''
> /la ˈov.tsa kai̯ lis ˈko.nis/
 
> ''la              ovça    cai  lis          con-is''
/la ˈov.tsa kai̯ lis ˈko.nis/
> DEF.SG.F  sheep  and  DEF.PL.C  horse-PL.C
 
> '''The Sheep and the Horses'''
''la              ovça    cai  lis          con-is''
 
DEF.SG.F  sheep  and  DEF.PL.C  horse-PL.C
 
'''The Sheep and the Horses'''
 
 
 
'''''Epi en pagorec, ena ovça, qui vulna ne adei niť, a savel conis:'''''
 
/ˈe.pi en pa.ɡoˈʀrek ˈe.na ˈov.tsa ki ˈvul.na ne aˈdei̯ nic a saˈvel ˈko.nis/
 
''epi  en              pagorec  ena            ovça    qui            vulna  ne    ad-ei                    niť''
 
on  INDF.SG.M  hill          INDF.SG.F  sheep  REL.NOM  wool  NEG  have.PST-.IPF.3s  NEG
 
''a          savel        con-is''
 
PST.3s  see.PTCP  horse-PL.C
 
'''On a hill, sheep that had no wool saw horses'''
 
 
 
'''''en con qui troquei en voz baro,'''''
 
/en kon ki tʀoˈkei̯ en voz ˈba.ʀo/
 
''en                con    qui            troc-ei              en                voz  bar-o''
 
INDF.SG.M  horse  REL.NOM  pull.PST-IPF.3s  INDF.SG.M  cart  heavy-SG.C
 
'''a horse that pulled a heavy wagon'''
 
 
 
'''''en con qui borei ena tovara mega'''''
 
/en kon ki boˈʀei̯ ˈe.na toˈva.ʀa ˈme.ɡa/
 
''en                con    qui            bor-ei                  ena            tovara    meg-a''
 
INDF.SG.M  horse  REL.NOM  carry.PST-IPF.3s  INDF.SG.F  burden  big-SG.F
 
'''a horse that carried a big load'''
 
 
 
'''''cai en con qui borei tacament en muz.'''''
 
/kai̯ en kon ki boˈʀei̯ ta.kaˈment en muz/
 
''cai    en              con    qui            bor-ei                  taca-ment  en              muz''
 
and  INDF.SG.M  horse  REL.NOM  carry.PST-IPF.3s  fast-ADV  INDF.SG.M  man
 
'''a horse that carried a man quickly.'''
 
 
 
'''''La ovça a sagel pro conis:'''''
 
/la ˈov.tsa saˈɡel pʀo ˈko.nis/
 
''la            ovça    a          sag-el      pro  con-is''
 
DEF.SG.F  sheep  PST.3s  say-PTCP  DAT  horse-PL.C
 
'''The sheep said to the horses:'''
 
 
 
'''''« Lo serce mino me doe bol seyendo en muz qui drive conis ».'''''
 
/lo ˈseʀ.tse ˈmi.no me ˈdo.e bol seˈjen.do en muz ki ˈdʀi.ve ˈko.nis/
 
''lo              serce  min-o            me        doe          bol''
 
DEF.SG.N  heart  1s.POS-SG.N  1s.OBL  do.PRS.3s  pain
 
''sey-endo    en              muz  qui          driv-e            con-is''
 
see-GER    INDF.SG.M  man  REL.NOM  drive-PRS.3s  horse-PL.C
 
'''"My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses."'''
 
 
 
'''''Lis conis an sagel: « Ovça, listi!'''''
 
/lis ˈko.nis an saˈɡel ˈov.tsa ˈlis.ti/
 
''lis            con-is        an        sag-el      ovça    list-i''
 
DEF.PL.C  horse-PL.C  PST.3p  say-PTCP  sheep  listen-IMP
 
'''The sheep said to the horses: "Sheep, listen!'''
 
 
 
'''''Lis sercis minis nis doen bol cuando nis seyens questo:'''''
 
/lis ˈseʀ.tsis ˈmi.nis nis ˈdo.en bol kuˈan.do nis seˈjens ˈkes.to/
 
''lis            serc-is        min-is            nis            doen          bol''
 
DEF.PL.C  heart-PLC  1s.POS-PL.C  1p.M.OBL  do.PRS.3p  pain
 
''cuando  nis    sey-ens        questo''
 
when    1p.C  see-PRS.1p  this-SG.C
 
'''"Our hearts pain us when we see this:'''
 
 
 
'''''en muz, el gospodar, verandere la vulna des ovça's'''''
 
/en muz el ɡos.poˈdaʀ ve.ʀanˈde.ʀe la ˈvul.na des ˈov.tsas/
 
''en                muz  el              gospodar  verander-e        la            vulna  des  ovça-'s''
 
INDF.SG.M  man  DEF.SG.M  master      change-PRS.3s  DEF.SG.F  wool  POS  sheep-POS
 
'''a man, the master, changes the wool of the sheep'''
 
 
 
'''''na en plašt termo pro si.'''''
 
/na en plaʃt ˈteʀ.mo pʀo si/
 
''na    en              plašt        term-o        pro  si''
 
into  INDF.SG.M  garment  warm-SG.C  for  REFL
 
'''into a warm garment for himself.'''
 
 
 
'''''Cai nun la ovça n'a niť vulna. »'''''
 
/kai̯ nun la ˈov.tsa na nic ˈvul.na/


> '''''Epi en pagorec, ena ovça, qui vulna ne adei niť, a savel conis:'''''
''cai    nun  la            ovça   n'-a                       niť    vulna''
> /ˈe.pi en pa.ɡoˈʀrek ˈe.na ˈov.tsa ki ˈvul.na ne aˈdei̯ nic a saˈvel ˈko.nis/
> ''epi  en              pagorec  ena            ovça    qui            vulna ne    ad-ei                    niť''
> on  INDF.SG.M  hill          INDF.SG.F  sheep  REL.NOM  wool  NEG  have.PST-.IPF.3s  NEG
> ''a          savel        con-is''
> PST.3s  see.PTCP  horse-PL.C
> '''On a hill, sheep that had no wool saw horses'''


> '''''en con qui troquei en voz baro,'''''
and  now DEF.SG.F sheep NEG-have.PRS.3s  NEG wool
> /en kon ki tʀoˈkei̯ en voz ˈba.ʀo/
> ''en                con    qui            troc-ei              en                voz bar-o''
> INDF.SG.M horse REL.NOM  pull.PST-IPF.3s  INDF.SG.M cart  heavy-SG.C
> '''a horse that pulled a heavy wagon'''


> '''''en con qui borei ena tovara mega'''''
'''And now the sheep doesn't have wool."'''
> /en kon ki boˈʀei̯ ˈe.na toˈva.ʀa ˈme.ɡa/
> ''en                con    qui            bor-ei                  ena            tovara    meg-a''
> INDF.SG.M  horse  REL.NOM  carry.PST-IPF.3s  INDF.SG.F  burden  big-SG.F
> '''a horse that carried a big load'''


> '''''cai en con qui borei tacament en muz.'''''
> /kai̯ en kon ki boˈʀei̯ ta.kaˈment en muz/
> ''cai    en              con    qui            bor-ei                  taca-ment  en              muz''
> and  INDF.SG.M  horse  REL.NOM  carry.PST-IPF.3s  fast-ADV  INDF.SG.M  man
> '''a horse that carried a man quickly.'''


> '''''La ovça a sagel pro conis:'''''
> /la ˈov.tsa saˈɡel pʀo ˈko.nis/
> ''la            ovça    a          sag-el      pro  con-is''
> DEF.SG.F  sheep  PST.3s  say-PTCP  DAT  horse-PL.C
> '''The sheep said to the horses:'''


> '''''« Lo serce mino me doe bol seyendo en muz qui drive conis ».'''''
'''''La ovça a herel questo cai is flohela na la rovnina.'''''
> /lo ˈseʀ.tse ˈmi.no me ˈdo.e bol seˈjen.do en muz ki ˈdʀi.ve ˈko.nis/
> ''lo              serce  min-o            me        doe          bol''
> DEF.SG.N  heart  1s.POS-SG.N  1s.OBL  do.PRS.3s  pain
> ''sey-endo    en              muz  qui          driv-e            con-is''
> see-GER    INDF.SG.M  man  REL.NOM  drive-PRS.3s  horse-PL.C
> '''"My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses."'''


> '''''Lis conis an sagel: « Ovça, listi!'''''
/la ˈov.tsa a xeˈʀel ˈkes.to kai̯ is floˈxe.la na la ʀovˈni.na/
> /lis ˈko.nis an saˈɡel ˈov.tsa ˈlis.ti/
> ''lis            con-is         an        sag-el      ovça    list-i''
> DEF.PL.C  horse-PL.C  PST.3p  say-PTCP  sheep  listen-IMP
> '''The sheep said to the horses: "Sheep, listen!'''


> '''''Lis sercis minis nis doen bol cuando nis seyens questo:'''''
''la              ovça    a        her-el          questo   cai  is          floh-ela''
> /lis ˈseʀ.tsis ˈmi.nis nis ˈdo.en bol kuˈan.do nis seˈjens ˈkes.to/
> ''lis            serc-is        min-is           nis            doen         bol''
> DEF.PL.C  heart-PLC  1s.POS-PL.C  1p.M.OBL  do.PRS.3p  pain
> ''cuando  nis    sey-ens        questo''
> when    1p.C  see-PRS.1p  this-SG.C
> '''"Our hearts pain us when we see this:'''


> '''''en muz, el gospodar, verandere la vulna des ovça's'''''
DEF.SG.F sheep PST.3s hear-PTCP this      and PST.3s  flee.PST-PTCP.SG.F
> /en muz el ɡos.poˈdaʀ ve.ʀanˈde.ʀe la ˈvul.na des ˈov.tsas/
> ''en                muz el              gospodar verander-e        la            vulna des  ovça-'s''
> INDF.SG.M  man DEF.SG.M master      change-PRS.3s  DEF.SG.F wool  POS  sheep-POS
> '''a man, the master, changes the wool of the sheep'''


> '''''na en plašt termo pro si.'''''
''na   la              rovnina''
> /na en plaʃt ˈteʀ.mo pʀo si/
> ''na    en              plašt        term-o        pro  si''
> into  INDF.SG.M  garment  warm-SG.C  for  REFL
> '''into a warm garment for himself.'''


> '''''Cai nun la ovça n'a niť vulna. »'''''
into DEF.SG.F  plain
> /kai̯ nun la ˈov.tsa na nic ˈvul.na/
> ''cai    nun  la            ovça    n'-a                      niť    vulna''
> and  now DEF.SG.F  sheep  NEG-have.PRS.3s  NEG  wool
> '''And now the sheep doesn't have wool."'''


> '''''La ovça a herel questo cai is flohela na la rovnina.'''''
'''The sheep heard this and fled into the plain.'''
> /la ˈov.tsa a xeˈʀel ˈkes.to kai̯ is floˈxe.la na la ʀovˈni.na/
> ''la              ovça    a        her-el          questo  cai  is          floh-ela''
> DEF.SG.F  sheep  PST.3s  hear-PTCP  this      and  PST.3s  flee.PST-PTCP.SG.F
> ''na    la              rovnina''
> into  DEF.SG.F  plain
> '''The sheep heard this and fled into the plain.'''


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Jotadiego
122

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