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During the '''[[Phonological history of Carnian#Old Carnian Period|Old Carnian]]''' period, the accent system shifted to fixed stem-initial stress, triggering widespread vowel reduction and extensive posttonic syncope. These processes reorganized the vowel system, created new consonant clusters, and led to far-reaching cluster simplification, geminate development, and several new phonemes such as /f/ and /ts/. Systematic depalatalization eliminated most Proto-Slavic palatal consonants, while ''l'' later underwent partial coda vocalization.
During the '''[[Phonological history of Carnian#Old Carnian Period|Old Carnian]]''' period, the accent system shifted to fixed stem-initial stress, triggering widespread vowel reduction and extensive posttonic syncope. These processes reorganized the vowel system, created new consonant clusters, and led to far-reaching cluster simplification, geminate development, and several new phonemes such as /f/ and /ts/. Systematic depalatalization eliminated most Proto-Slavic palatal consonants, while ''l'' later underwent partial coda vocalization.


Other hallmark developments include the unique evolution of yat into a centering diphthong ''ea'', restructuring of vowel length according to syllable structure, breaking of earlier long high vowels, and fronting/dissimilation of high-vowel diphthongs. The phoneme written ⟨œ⟩ reflects the distinctive Carnian reflex of Proto-Slavic *''y''.
Other hallmark developments include the unique evolution of yat into a centering diphthong ''ea'', restructuring of vowel length according to syllable structure, loss of ''h'', breaking of earlier long high vowels, and fronting/dissimilation of high-vowel diphthongs. The phoneme written ⟨œ⟩ reflects the distinctive Carnian reflex of Proto-Slavic *''y''.


'''[[Phonological history of Carnian#Modern Carnian Developments|Modern Carnian]]''' experienced a secondary accent shift toward penultimate stress, accompanied by additional vowel lengthening and the levelling of the old ''l''–''ł'' contrast. Postalveolar consonants underwent further analogical simplification, completing the modern system.
'''[[Phonological history of Carnian#Modern Carnian Developments|Modern Carnian]]''' experienced a secondary accent shift toward penultimate stress, accompanied by additional vowel lengthening and the levelling of the old ''l''–''ł'' contrast. Postalveolar consonants underwent further analogical simplification, completing the modern system.
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* /i/ is a near-close front vowel [i̞]. In all unstressed syllables and closed stressed syllables it is near-front [ɪ]. When preceded by /r/, it is retracted to [ɨ̞]
* /i/ is a near-close front vowel [i̞]. In all unstressed syllables and closed stressed syllables it is near-front [ɪ]. When preceded by /r/, it is retracted to [ɨ̞]


* /ʊ/ is described as a near-close central-near back vowel with pronunciation ranging from [ɵ̝] to [ʊ] with [ʊ̟] being the most common pronunciation
* /ʊ/ is described as a near-close central-near back vowel [ʊ̟]. In unstressed syllables it centralizes to [ɵ̝]


==== Mid vowels ====
==== Mid vowels ====
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! [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[w:Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! [[w:Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
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!rowspan=2| [[w:Stop consonant|Plosive]]
!rowspan=2| [[w:Stop consonant|Plosive]]
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| [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]]
| [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]]
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! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
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| [[w:Voiced velar plosive|ɡ]]
| [[w:Voiced velar plosive|ɡ]]
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!colspan=2| [[w:Affricate|Affricate]]
!colspan=2| [[w:Affricate|Affricate]]
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| [[w:Voiceless postalveolar affricate|tʃ]]
| [[w:Voiceless postalveolar affricate|tʃ]]
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!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!rowspan=2| [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
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| [[w:Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]
| [[w:Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]
| [[w:Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]
| [[w:Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]
| [[w:Voiceless velar fricative|x]]
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| [[w:Voiceless glottal fricative|h]]
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! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
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| [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
| [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
| [[w:Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]
| [[w:Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]
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| [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
| [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
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!colspan=2| [[w: Tap and flap consonants|Flap]]
!colspan=2| [[w: Tap and flap consonants|Flap]]
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| [[w:Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|ɾ]]
| [[w:Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|ɾ]]
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* /b, d, g/ are spirantized to [β, ð, ɣ] or [β̞, ð̞, ɣ̞] in northern dialects. In a subgroup of those dialects which exhibit word-final devoicing, these are realized as [ɸ, θ, x]. Some Carinthian dialects with the spirantization /g/ > /ɣ/ also tend to realize /k/ as uvular [q]
* /b, d, g/ are spirantized to [β, ð, ɣ] or [β̞, ð̞, ɣ̞] in northern dialects. In a subgroup of those dialects which exhibit word-final devoicing, these are realized as [ɸ, θ, x]. Some Carinthian dialects with the spirantization /g/ > /ɣ/ also tend to realize /k/ as uvular [q]


* /x/ is usually glottal [h] word-initially
* /h/ is a glottal fricative [h] word-initially and an approximant [ɦ̞] intervocalically


* /ʋ/ is a labiodental approximant with the fricative allophone [v] in certain contexts, such as when preceded by /ɾ/ or /l/. In coda and after most consonants, it is realized as [ʊ̯] or [w] and forms a diphthong
* /ʋ/ is a labiodental approximant with the fricative allophone [v] in certain contexts, such as when preceded by /ɾ/ or /l/. In coda and after most consonants, it is realized as [ʊ̯] or [w] and forms a diphthong
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* /l/ is alveolar in most positions with a velarized allophone [ɫ] when in coda
* /l/ is alveolar in most positions with a velarized allophone [ɫ] when in coda


* /ɾ/ is a flap, although some speakers may realize it slightly like an approximant. In coda, especially in urban dialects, it is often vocalized to [ə̯], forming a diphthong, or elided with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel
* /ɾ/ is a flap, although some speakers may realize it slightly like an approximant. In coda, especially in urban dialects, it is often elided with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. Dialectally it is an uvular approximant [ʁ̞] or trill [ʀ]


=== Foreign sounds ===
=== Foreign sounds ===
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* Generalization of the -''m'' suffix in the first person singular conjugation
* Generalization of the -''m'' suffix in the first person singular conjugation
* Mergers between soft and hard declensions
* Mergers between soft and hard declensions
* ''kei'' 'what' pronoun, shared with Slovene and Kajkavian, locally also ''cie'' / ''cia'' (shared with Chakavian)
* ''kei'' 'what' pronoun, shared with Slovene and Kajkavian, locally also ''che'' / ''cha'' (shared with Chakavian)
* Residual preservation of the indefinite adjectival declension (modern predicative adjectives)
* Residual preservation of the indefinite adjectival declension (modern predicative adjectives)
* Approximant character of v with the tendency for vocalization
* Approximant character of v with the tendency for vocalization
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The '''Carinthian''' dialect, spoken in Carnian Carinthia and parts of Upper Carniola, represents the most conservative variety and was historically the prestige dialect of the medieval nobility and clergy. It preserves stem-initial stress, maintains the L-Ł distinction, and exhibits lenition of voiced stops (/b, d, g/ > /β, ð, ɣ/). Strong German influence is evident in both phonology and lexicon due to centuries of Carnian-German bilingualism in the region.
The '''Carinthian''' dialect, spoken in Carnian Carinthia and parts of Upper Carniola, represents the most conservative variety and was historically the prestige dialect of the medieval nobility and clergy. It preserves stem-initial stress, maintains the L-Ł distinction, and exhibits lenition of voiced stops (/b, d, g/ > /β, ð, ɣ/). Strong German influence is evident in both phonology and lexicon due to centuries of Carnian-German bilingualism in the region.


The '''Upper''' dialect of Upper Carniola and Lubiana forms a transitional zone between Carinthian and Central varieties, generally featuring penultimate stress while retaining some conservative features such as the L-Ł distinction in northern areas.
The '''Upper''' dialect of Upper Carniola and Lubiana forms a transitional zone between Carinthian and Central varieties, generally featuring penultimate stress while retaining some conservative features (such as the L-Ł distinction in northern areas) and having own innovations (such as unrounded open ''o'' and uvular ''r'').


The '''Lower''' dialect is the most divergent from the standard, having developed as a transitional variety between Carnian and Slovene. It is characterized by weak syncope, reflexes of liquid metathesis that align with South Slavic patterns, and early denasalization. This dialect retains free accent in eastern areas and preserves some archaic dual and locative expressions.
The '''Lower''' dialect is the most divergent from the standard, having developed as a transitional variety between Carnian and Slovene. It is characterized by weak syncope, reflexes of liquid metathesis that align with South Slavic patterns, and early denasalization. This dialect retains free accent in eastern areas and preserves some archaic dual and locative expressions.
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The earliest known records to be written in Carnian are Freising Manuscripts from the 10th century. They have been invaluable for the research of Carnian and Slavic language history. Later centuries brought more texts; all were, however, written in primitive orthography based primarily on German and Latin. The spelling conventions varied between writers and were ambiguous, especially for sounds absent in German or Latin systems. Following settlement along the Adriatic coast, the situation became more chaotic with new Italian-influenced spellings emerging.
The earliest known records to be written in Carnian are Freising Manuscripts from the 10th century. They have been invaluable for the research of Carnian and Slavic language history. Later centuries brought more texts; all were, however, written in primitive orthography based primarily on German and Latin. The spelling conventions varied between writers and were ambiguous, especially for sounds absent in German or Latin systems. Following settlement along the Adriatic coast, the situation became more chaotic with new Italian-influenced spellings emerging.


In Early Modern times, two competing spelling systems existed: '''Carinthian''' or '''traditional''', used in Carinthia and Upper Carniola, and '''coastal''', used in the Littoral, Inner Carniola, Istria, and Libursca. The first one continued German-based spelling, such as the use of ⟨sch⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨tsch⟩ for /ʧ/, ⟨ch⟩ for /x/, or ⟨k⟩ for /k/. The second applied Italian orthographic principles, including ⟨sci⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨ci⟩ for /ʧ/, or ⟨c⟩/⟨ch⟩ for /k/. However, none of them reflected Carnian phonology in an accurate and clear manner. Following the 16th century, there were several attempts to unify Carnian spelling or present a new approach (such as ⟨sh⟩ for /ʃ/, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages at that time), although they never became popular and were blocked primarily by the coastal writers.
In Early Modern times, two competing spelling systems existed: '''Carinthian''' or '''traditional''', used in Carinthia and Upper Carniola, and '''coastal''', used in the Littoral, Inner Carniola, Istria, and Libursca. The first one continued German-based spelling, such as the use of ⟨sch⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨tsch⟩ for /ʧ/, ⟨ch⟩ for /ç/, or ⟨k⟩ for /k/. The second applied Italian orthographic principles, including ⟨sci⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨ci⟩ for /ʧ/, or ⟨c⟩/⟨ch⟩ for /k/. However, none of them reflected Carnian phonology in an accurate and clear manner. Following the 16th century, there were several attempts to unify Carnian spelling or present a new approach (such as ⟨sh⟩ for /ʃ/, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages at that time), although they never became popular and were blocked primarily by the coastal writers.


Eventually a new convention was developed in the 17th century which sought to compromise the two existing systems. It was met with approval and became the ground for modern orthography. It included the following rules:
Eventually a new convention was developed in the 17th century which sought to compromise the two existing systems. It was met with approval and became the ground for modern orthography. It included the following rules:
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* ⟨c⟩ used for /k/ unless preceded by a front vowel, when the German ⟨ck⟩ was used (instead of Italian ⟨ch⟩). Word-initially and in German loanwords only ⟨k⟩ was used. The choice of ⟨c⟩ was motivated by morphological alternations caused by Proto-Slavic palatalization and stubborn positions of coastal writers
* ⟨c⟩ used for /k/ unless preceded by a front vowel, when the German ⟨ck⟩ was used (instead of Italian ⟨ch⟩). Word-initially and in German loanwords only ⟨k⟩ was used. The choice of ⟨c⟩ was motivated by morphological alternations caused by Proto-Slavic palatalization and stubborn positions of coastal writers
* /s/ was generally expressed by ⟨s⟩, although etymological ⟨c⟩ before front vowels was kept and reinforced
* /s/ was generally expressed by ⟨s⟩, although etymological ⟨c⟩ before front vowels was kept and reinforced
* ⟨ch⟩ used for /x/, except in some word-initial positions and loanwords
* ⟨ch⟩ was used for /ç/. Following the merger /ç/ > /ʃ/ in most dialects, ⟨ch⟩ began to be used also for /ʃ/ from deaffricated /t͡ʃ/ and in French loanwords
* ⟨h⟩ was used for /h/. Since /h/ exists in medial positions, ⟨h⟩ never represents a silent letter in standard orthography
* ⟨ci⟩, ⟨gi⟩, and ⟨si⟩ were introduced for /ʧ/, /ʒ/, and /ʃ/, respectively. Since it was ambiguous in certain positions (e.g., word-finally, before a consonant, or before ⟨i⟩), new letters ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩, and ⟨ṡ⟩ emerged by removing ⟨i⟩ and moving the dot over the preceding consonant
* ⟨ci⟩, ⟨gi⟩, and ⟨si⟩ were introduced for /ʧ/, /ʒ/, and /ʃ/, respectively. Since it was ambiguous in certain positions (e.g., word-finally, before a consonant, or before ⟨i⟩), new letters ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩, and ⟨ṡ⟩ emerged by removing ⟨i⟩ and moving the dot over the preceding consonant
* ⟨œ⟩ for /ɜ/ was maintained
* ⟨œ⟩ for /ɜ/ was maintained
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* ⟨tz⟩ used for /ts/ (given the origins of this phoneme)
* ⟨tz⟩ used for /ts/ (given the origins of this phoneme)


 
The rise of the Illyrian movement in the 19th century gave rise to another spelling convention based on Gaj's Latin alphabet. It included the use of ⟨č⟩, ⟨š⟩, and ⟨ž⟩ for postalveolar consonants, replacement of ⟨ea⟩ with ⟨ě⟩, ⟨tz⟩ with ⟨c⟩, and ⟨œ⟩ with ⟨ë⟩. While it received considerable popularity in the 19th century, it never became official and became officially rejected following tensions with Yugoslavia in the 20th century. As of today, it is used by a few minor pan-Slavic organizations.
The rise of the Illyrian movement in the 19th century gave rise to another spelling convention based on Gaj's Latin alphabet. It included the use of ⟨č⟩, ⟨š⟩, and ⟨ž⟩ for postalveolar consonants, replacement of ⟨ea⟩ with ⟨ě⟩, ⟨ch⟩ with ⟨h⟩, ⟨tz⟩ with ⟨c⟩, and ⟨œ⟩ with ⟨ë⟩. While it received considerable popularity in the 19th century, it never became official and became officially rejected following tensions with Yugoslavia in the 20th century. As of today, it is used by a few minor pan-Slavic organizations.


=== Spelling principles ===
=== Spelling principles ===
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* Morphophonemic spelling: Alternations caused by historical sound changes are preserved in spelling to maintain morphological transparency (e.g., ''bœc'' 'bull' vs. ''bœci'' 'bulls', where /k/ > /s/ is preserved orthographically as ⟨c⟩)
* Morphophonemic spelling: Alternations caused by historical sound changes are preserved in spelling to maintain morphological transparency (e.g., ''bœc'' 'bull' vs. ''bœci'' 'bulls', where /k/ > /s/ is preserved orthographically as ⟨c⟩)
* Diacritics for disambiguation: The grave accent ⟨à, è⟩ marks unpredictable stress patterns and distinguishes minimal pairs (although the latter is in practice limited to didactic texts)
* Diacritics for disambiguation: The grave accent ⟨à, è⟩ marks unpredictable stress patterns and distinguishes minimal pairs (although the latter is in practice limited to didactic texts). It is also often used for hiatus marking to resolve potential ambiguities
* Gemination: Double consonants represent true geminates, not just orthographic conventions
* Gemination: Double consonants represent true geminates, not just orthographic conventions
* ⟨ea⟩ is used to represent etymological /ɛɐ̯/ even when it becomes indistinguishable from /ɛ/ (in closed and unstressed syllables), as long as it alternates with the full [ɛɐ̯] (cf. Nom. ''sneag'' [snɛ̂k], Gen. ''sneaga'' [snɛ̂ɐ̯gɐ] 'snow'). In words with no alternation, ⟨e⟩ is used (e.g., ''venno'' 'always')
* ⟨ea⟩ is used to represent etymological /ɛɐ̯/ even when it becomes indistinguishable from /ɛ/ (in closed and unstressed syllables), as long as it alternates with the full [ɛɐ̯] (cf. Nom. ''sneag'' [snɛ̂k], Gen. ''sneaga'' [snɛ̂ɐ̯gɐ] 'snow'). In words with no alternation, ⟨e⟩ is used (e.g., ''venno'' 'always')
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|-
|-
!colspan=2| ch
!colspan=2| ch
| [x]
| [ʃ]
| ''me'''ch''''' 'moss'
| '''''ch'''ett'' 'whisper'
|-
|-
!colspan=2| ck
!colspan=2| ck
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|-
|-
!colspan=2| h
!colspan=2| h
| [x]
| [h]
| ''[[Contionary:hœsa#Carnian|'''h'''œsa]]'' 'house'
| ''[[Contionary:hœsa#Carnian|'''h'''œsa]]'' 'house'
|-
|-
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!colspan=2| t
!colspan=2| t
| [t]
| [t]
| '''''t'''ich'' 'quiet'
| '''''t'''is'' 'quiet'
|-
|-
!rowspan=2| tz
!rowspan=2| tz
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'''Phonetic transcription'''
'''Phonetic transcription'''


: [tǎnt gɐ jɛ pɞlɛndâʊ̯ | tɞ jɛ jɛ̂ːnɞ strâsnɞ ʋɛ̌lkɛ ɐntɛ̂ˑ jɛ rɛ̌k | njɛ mâːlɞ pɞdɒ̌n dɾʊ̂ːgɪm | lɪ ɾɛ̌s jɛ jɛ̂ːnɞ pʊɾɐnɛ̌ˑ | nɞ skɔ̌ːɾɞ sâːʋɛm | bɐ ʃɛ̌t ʋɛ ʋɞdǎˑ tǎːkɞ lɪ gɐ bɐm mɞɾǎʊ̯ sâːmɐ tɪsnânt]
: [tǎnt gɐ jɛ pɞlɛndâʊ̯ | tɞ jɛ jɛ̂ːnɞ strâsnɞ ʋɛ̌lkɛ ɐntɛ̂ˑ jɛ rɛ̌k | njɛ mâːlɞ pɞdɒ̌n dɾʊ̟̂ːgɪm | lɪ ɾɛ̌s jɛ jɛ̂ːnɞ pɵ̞ɾɐnɛ̌ˑ | nɞ skɔ̌ːɾɞ sâːʋɛm | bɐ ʃɛ̌t ʋɛ ʋɞdǎˑ tǎːkɞ lɪ gɐ bɐm mɞɾǎʊ̯ sâːmɐ tɪsnânt]


'''Phonemic transcription'''
'''Phonemic transcription'''
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