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| Line 1,318: |
Line 1,318: |
| tak orâshim kot "3 Orashim trees" = 3 hundred. An orashim tree is apporximately the length of 100 hand lengths (from heel of wrist to the tip of the longest, i.e. 3rd, finger). An orashim is also 100. | | tak orâshim kot "3 Orashim trees" = 3 hundred. An orashim tree is apporximately the length of 100 hand lengths (from heel of wrist to the tip of the longest, i.e. 3rd, finger). An orashim is also 100. |
| --> | | --> |
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| ==== Verbs ====
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|
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| Verbs mark for [blah blah blah blah]
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| Verb Template
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! colspan="3"| Primary Verb Slot
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| ! colspan="9"| Auxiliary Verb Slot
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| |-
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| | Inverse marker || Transitive Portmanteau Pronoun|| Primary Verb || Evidential|| Verb|| Caus|| Modality|| Aspect|| Intrans Pronoun|| Tense || Negator || Interrogative
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| |-
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| | Example || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example || Example|| Example||Example||Example
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| |}
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| An example of a sentence with a polymorphemic main verb demonstrates the templatic structure. The first line is the normalized text. The text that follows is denormalized text which indicates the morphemic boundaries of all the words. The final text is a full gloss of the denormalized text.
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| * Rompóy kurashno tayamyayakhoshmakor tā'itá'.
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| * Rompóy kurashno ta-yam-yayak-hoshma-kor tā'itá'.
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| * dog girl INV-COMM.APPL-go.up.mountain-often INV.PST.COP
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| "The dog went up the mountain with the girl."
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|
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| ===== Main Verb =====
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| The main verb is believed to be descended from a verbal noun. The main verb hosts the Inverse Marker ''tā-/ta-'', applicative, aspect, and evidential/modal markers. If a pronoun is used, it may cliticize to the first element of the verb. However, one or more adjuncts may be inserted between the portmanteau pronoun and the verb, in which case the portmanteau cliticizes to the adjunct following it.
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| <!--
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| portmanteau=[INV-APP-ASP-EVID-MAIN.VERB] [AUX.VERB]
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| -->
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|
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| ====== Applicatives ======
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|
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| The Applicative affixes betray their origins as motion and positional verbs. However, Applicatives, unlike their locomotive verbal counterparts, also alter the argument structure of a clause by promoting an oblique NP to a derived Patient argument; this promotion of an oblique argument triggers the demotion of the original Patient argument to oblique status. Applicatives are mutually incompatible with the Passive and Antipassive markers that are carried on the auxiliary verb (see section on Auxiliary Verbs below). However, since the Applicatives increase the transitivity of a clause, thereby creating a derived Patient, the Inverse Prefix can be prefixed to the Applicative in the usual manner, namely, to mark lower animacy core arguments as Agents and higher animacy arguments as Patients in transitive clauses. When the Inverse marker cliticizes to an Applicative, morphophonemic may alternations occur.
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| Because of their origin from motion and positional verbs, these affixes are prefixed to the main verb.
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! !! Applicative Marker!! Inverse Marker + Applicative Marker!! Meaning
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Dative/Allative
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| | san-
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| | tasan-
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| | to, towards
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Benefactive
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| | nas-
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| | tanas-
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| | for
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Commitative
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| | yam-
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| | tayam-, teym-, tem-
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| | with, along
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Instrumental
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| | mak-
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| | tamak-
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| | by means of, using
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Ablative
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| | ris-
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| | tarsh-
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| | from
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Locative
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| | ne-
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| | tan-
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| | in, within
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Vialis
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| | nak-
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| | tanak-, tank-
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| | through
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| |-
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|
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| ! style=""| Prolative
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| | rosh-
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| | torsh-
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| | across
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Elative
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| | nakri-
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| | takri-
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| | out of
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Illative
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| | nak-
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| | tanak-
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| | into
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Superessive
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| | or-
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| | tor-
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| | above
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Subessive
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| | yor-
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| | chor- (Shapshira dialect: "toyor-")
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| | below
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Ablative-Superessive
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| | suk-
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| | tushk-, toshk-
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| | from above
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Ablative-Subessive
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| | roy-
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| | toroy-
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| | from below
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Perlative
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| | tek-
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| | tatek-
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| | across
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Riverine
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| | tem-, ten-
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| | tatem, taten-
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| | along a river
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Montaigne
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| | yayk-
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| | teyk-
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| | upwards on a mountain
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| |}
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|
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| ====== Aspect ======
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| The Perfective Aspect is null-marked, but several non-Perfect Aspects are recognized:
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! !! Aspect Marker!! Meaning
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Perfect
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| | -Ø||
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Semelfective
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| | -no|| completed in one single motion/act, e.g. hit
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Simple Imperfect
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| | -ro||
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Durative/Repetitive
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| | -nahoyra|| several times
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Habitative
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| | -(h)oshma, -shma|| often
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Factual
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| | -yoshir|| (general truth statement, e.g. "The sun rises in the east")
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Continuative
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| | -namporo|| to continue
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Inceptive
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| | -otah|| to begin
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Cessative
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| | -chiri|| to stop
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Terminative
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| | -ruykáno|| to finish
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Incipient
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| | -kara|| about to
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Approximative
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| | -tontoro|| almost, nearly
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Frequentative
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| | -nokori, -(o)nkori|| often
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| |-
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| |}
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|
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| ====== Modals and Evidentials======
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| The Modal and Evidential suffixes occupy the final position of the main verb's template.
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! colspan="2"|Mode
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Factual
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| | -mash
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Hearsay
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| | -kor
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Visual
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| | -nui
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Intentive
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| | -neat
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| |}
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|
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| <!--
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| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidentiality
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| -->
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|
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| =====Auxiliary Verbs =====
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| Auxiliary verbs encode number, voice and tense. Intransitive pronominal core arguments, if used as independent pronouns, precede the auxiliary.
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| ((More stuff to follow))
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|
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| ======Animacy-Number Agreement Marking======
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| Transitive verbs mark number on core arguments by ablaut, or by adding a prefix, to the auxiliary. These markers indicate the number of both the higher animate and the lower animate arguments.
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! !! Higher Animate Singular !! Higher Animate Plural
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Lower Animate Singular
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| | --
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| | t(i)-
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| |-
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| ! style=""| Lower Animate Plural
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| | first /a/ lengthened to /a:/
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| | ita-
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| |}
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| Unmarked:
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| # Rompóy kurasno rayro ta'itá'. "The girl played with the dog."
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| # Rompóy kurasno tarayro ta'itá'. "The dog played with the girls."
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| Higher Animate Plural x Lower Animate Singular
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| # Rompóy kurasno rayro ti-ta'itá'. "The girls played with the dog."
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| # Rompóy kurasno tarayro ti-ta'itá'. "The dog played with the girl."
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| Higher Animate Singular x Lower Animate Plural
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| # Rompóy kurasno rayro kor tā'itá'. "The girl played with the dogs."
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| # Rompóy kurasno tarayro kor tā'itá'. "The dogs played with the girl."
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| Higher Animate Plural x Lower Animate Plural
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| # Rompóy kurasno rayro ita-tā'itá'. "The girls played with the dogs."
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| # Rompóy kurasno tarayro ita-tā'itá'. "The dogs played with the girls."
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|
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| ======Voice and Tense======
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| The Nankôre verb is rich in voice and tense distinctions. These distinctions are combined in an auxiliary verb, formed by adding one or more prefixes to the copular verb ''itá'' /ɪ'taʔ/, hence this auxiliary is called the ''itá''-verb. The ''itá''-auxiliary verb is always clause final, the main verb and any other VP particles preceding it. Some voices also encode formality, with the long forms, e.g. ''man'itá', suphitá', tā'itá', hô'itá', and pā'itá' '', used for formal situations, and the short forms ''manta'/nitá', supta', tayta', hoyta''', and ''pitáh'' for informal conversation among friends and family.
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| Note that the Present Inverse form ''tā'itá''' is identical in form with that of the Past Direct form. Fortunately, the Inverse Voice is double-marked: the enclitic ''ta='' and its allomorphs ''tā=/tah=/tāh='' cliticizes to the main verb so no ambiguity arises.
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| HAS = High Animate Singular
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| HAP = High Animate Plural
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| LAS = Low Animate Singular
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| LAP = Low Animate Plural
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |-
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| ! !!colspan='4'| Present !! colspan='4'|Mythological Past !! colspan='4'| Distal Past !! colspan='4'|Past!! colspan='4'|Recent Morning Past !! colspan='4'| Future
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| |-
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| ! !! HAS x LAS !! HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP|| HAS x LAS ||HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP || HAS x LAS ||HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP|| HAS/LAS ||HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP|| HAS x LAS ||HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP|| HAS x LAS ||HAS x LAP || HAP x LAS ||HAP x LAP
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| |-
| |
| ! style="" | Direct
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| | itá'|| itâ' || titá' ||titâ' ||man'itá', manta', nitá' || man'itâ', mantâ', nitâ' || timan'itá', timanta', tintá' || timan'itâ', timantâ', tintâ' || suphitá', supta'||suphitâ', suptâ'|| tisuphitá', cupta' || tisuphitâ', cuptâ' || tā'itá', tayta' || tā'itâ', taytâ' || titā'itá', titayta' || titā'itâ', titaytâ' || hô'itá', hoyta' || hô'itâ', hoytâ' || tihô'itá', tihoyta' ||tihô'itâ', tihoytâ' || pā'itáhi, pitáh || pā'itâhi, pitâh || tipā'itáhi, tiptáh || tipā'itâhi, tiptâh
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Inverse
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| | tā'itá', tayta'||x||x||x|| taman'itá', tamanta'||x||x||x|| tahorish'itá', taroshta'||x||x||x|| tahortā'itá', tahorta'||x||x||x|| tahorô'itá', taróyta' || x||x||x|| tahorpā'itáhi, torpáytah||x||x||x
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Simple Causative
| |
| | shiphitá'||x||x||x|| mashpitá' ||x||x||x || ishpitá'||x||x||x|| tashpitá'||x||x||x|| hoshpitá'||x||x||x|| pashpitáhi, pashpitah||x||x||x
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Double Causative
| |
| | shipshiphitá'|| mashishpitá'|| ishishpitá'|| tashishpitá'|| hoshishpitá'|| pashishpitáhi, pashishpitah
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Intransitive Active
| |
| | kitá'|| mankitá'|| ishkitá'|| tākitá', takta'|| hôkitá', hokta' || pākitáhi, paktah
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Intransitive Stative
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| | itá'|| mankitá'|| ishkitá'|| tākitá', takta'|| hôkitá', hokta' || pākitáhi, paktah
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| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Passive
| |
| | horkitá'|| horankitá'|| horishkitá'|| hortākitá', hortakta|| horôkitá', horokta || horpākitáhi, horpaktah
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Reflexive
| |
| | shorkitá' || mashorkitá'|| ishorkitá'|| tashorkitá'|| hoshorkitá' || pashorkitáhi, pashorkitáh
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Reciprocal
| |
| | soshorkitá' || masoshorkitá'|| isoshorkitá'|| tasoshorkitá'|| hososhorkitá' || pasoshorkitáhi, pasoshorkitah
| |
| |-
| |
| ! style=""| Middle/Inchoative
| |
| | hankitá'|| mankitá'|| yankitá'|| tankitá'|| honkitá'||pankitáhi
| |
| |}
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|
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| <br/>
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| Nankôre has five intransitive voices, two basic Intransitive voices, one for Active verbs and another for Stative verbs; a Passive-Direct, a Reflexive, and a Reciprocal. A submorpheme ''-k-'' is found in all four intransitive voices, although it is lacking in the Present Tense form of the Intransitive Stative Form. The Active and Stative Intransitive forms are otherwise identical.
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|
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| The Passive demotes a '''lower animate''' core argument, which is then relegated to oblique status or is dropped from the clause. All Intransitive voices are incompatible with the Inverse marker ''ta=/tā=/tah=/tāh='' that cliticizes to the main verb.
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|
| |
| <!--
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| Detransitive Voices I and II remove one of the core arguments in a transitive clause, thus changing its argument structure by decreasing its valency. The Detransitive I voice removes the core NP argument that has the higher animacy level, and the Detransitive II voice removes the core NP that is lower on the Animacy Heirarchy. The reason that "Passive" and "Antipassive" do not apply is because they are concerned with removing an Agent, in the case of the Passive, or a Patient in the case of the Antipassive. However, it is important to remember that the Agent and Patient roles between the two core arguments of a transitive structure are determined by two factors: their positions in the Animacy Heirarchy with respect to one another, and the presence or absence of the Inverse marker ''ta=/tā=/tah=/tāh='' affix on both the main verb and the auxiliary.
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|
| |
| # ''Nan rompóy yashpa tā'itá' '' "The man hit the dog" (''nan''/man = Agent, ''rompóy''/dog = Patient; Direct Voice - Past Tense)
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| # ''Nan rompóy ta-yashpa tahortā'itá' '' "The dog hit the man" (''nan''/man = Agent, ''rompóy''/dog = Patient; Inverse Voice - Past Tense)
| |
| # ''Rompóy yashpa tākitá' '' "The dog hit" (''tākitá''' = Detransitive I - Past Tense; here, the more animate ''nan''/man was removed, while ''rompóy''/dog which is lower on the Animacy Heirarchy was retained as Agent)
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| # ''Nan yashpa hortākitá' '' "The man hit" (''hortākitá''' = Detransitive II - Past Tense; here, the less animate ''rompóy''/dog was removed, and the more animate argument ''nan''/man was retained as Agent)
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|
| |
| In clause chains, the Detransitive I voice is used to remove the higher animate NP from the argument structure. This allows for the lower animate argument to serve as the pivot for succeeding chains and allows the speaker to apply PRO-drop. The Detransitive II voice, in removing the lower animate argument, ensures that the higher animate NP is retained to serve as the pivot for the succeeding clauses, thus again allowing the speaker to apply PRO-drop without causing ambiguity. If a clause containing a verb in the Detransitive I voice is followed by another clause containing a verb in the Detransitive II voice, or vice versa, the result is similar to languages that use switch-reference to signal which argument is serving the role as Subject.
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| -->
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|
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| ====== Finals ======
| |
| The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the copula. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''-yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Chire-yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket chire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket chire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''-yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket chire-yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?" The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''.
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|
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| ======Derivation ======
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|
| |
| Nankôre has a set of verbalizing prefixes that when attached to nominal roots, often body parts, create verbs. These prefixes are most likely the remnants of Proto-Nahenic noun incorporation, based on comparisons with Nankôre's distant relatives, Minhast and Nahónda; similar or even identical fossilized affixes have been found in these languages that likewise attach to nominal roots for body parts to derive verbs, e.g. Minhast ''kirim'' (from ''k-erum'', literally "make sound with the mouth) and Nahónda ''teloma'' (from ''t-loma'', note that Minhast /k/ maps to Nahónda /t/); ''kirim'' is the Minhast cognate of Nankôre ''kôre''.
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|
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| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
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| |+ '''Verbalizing Prefixes'''
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| |-
| |
| !
| |
| ! Prefix
| |
| ! Sample Noun
| |
| ! Example
| |
| ! Meaning
| |
| ! Nahenic Cognates
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Sound
| |
| | k-
| |
| | ore "mouth"
| |
| | k-ore
| |
| | to speak
| |
| | Common Minhast ''k-irim'' "to speak" (NB: Nankôre ''ôre'' = "mouth" is cognate with Minhast ''erum'' = "mouth")
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| |-
| |
| ! Striking
| |
| | ya-
| |
| | shipa "hand"
| |
| | ya-shpa
| |
| | to punch
| |
| | Minhast, Horse Speaker dialect: ''wi-šnu'' "to strike, hit" (Minhast ''išna'' "fist", "knuckles")
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Movement
| |
| | ha-
| |
| | nake "foot"
| |
| | ha-nake
| |
| | to scoot along the floor with one's foot; to kick around
| |
| | Nahónda: ''ho-sispa'' "to give" ''sisp'' = hand; c.f. Minhast ''sespir'' = hand, Nankôre ''shipa'' = hand
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Stability
| |
| | pa-
| |
| | are "eye"
| |
| | p-are
| |
| | to stare
| |
| | Common Minhast ''p-uħta'' "to stand up" (from ''yuħta'' = "sole of the foot", cognate with Nankôre ''yohíhita'' = "flat surface")
| |
| |-
| |
|
| |
| ! Removal
| |
| | ro-
| |
| | ampe "body"
| |
| | ro-yampe
| |
| | to remove one's clothes
| |
| | Common Minhast ''ruyyamb'' "to take off clothing" (but note that Minhast lost the original ''*yambet'' (body), replacing it with ''tarti'' (body)
| |
| |-
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
| =====Positional and Motion Verbs=====
| |
|
| |
| As an example, the auxiliary ''kohán'' passivizes the clause, resulting in a one-argument clause containing only the logical Patient. Since there is only one core argument, the need for inverse marking no longer exists, and in fact the presence of both the passive auxiliary ''kohán'' and the inverse marker ''tā-/tāh-''' in the same sentence is ungrammatical. The same is true for the antipassive auxilliary ''norhe''/''norhâ'', that is the logical Patient is deleted leaving only the agent, and so once again, the presence of the inverse ''tā-/tāh-'' is ungrammatical. When either the Agent or the Patient has been deleted by the passive or antipassive auxiliaries, one thing that must be noted is that the demoted arguments are fully deleted. In other languages that have passives and/or antipassives, demoted core arguments need not be deleted, in fact in many languages the demoted argument may still be retained in the sentence, but this time as an oblique argument. Such is not the case in Nankôre; the former core argument cannot appear in the sentence.
| |
|
| |
| The applicative verbs promote an Oblique argument to core status, thereby creating a derived Patient. This results in a transitive sentence, and the inverse marker ''tā-/tāh-'' once again can be used to disambiguate the roles of the core arguments if a lower-animacy argument is an Agent. Interestingly, unlike passivation and antipassivation, the demoted core argument, which is always the former Patient, can still appear in the clause as an Oblique argument, marked with the connective ''si-'' There are several of these auxiliaries, listed in the following table:
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|
| |
| The Positional/Motion verbs usually appear at the beginning of the VP.
| |
|
| |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| |+ style="font-weight:bold"| Table of Applicative Auxiliary Verbs
| |
| |-
| |
| ! !! Positional/Motion Verb !! Sample Sentence !! Translation !! Comment
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Directional
| |
| | sanha || Anut America sanha-kor kamuk itá. || Anut supposedly flew to America. || ''-kor'' = HEARSAY.EVID, attaches to the first verb of a VP.
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Benefactive
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| | nasko|| Nanhoska karen tā-nasko-ro-kor eyna itá. || It is said the (sacred) tree gave (life) for the people.|| Note also the inverse marker ''tā-'' <br/>''-ro-'' = IMPF.
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| |-
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| ! Commitative
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| | yampe || Anut yampe-kor temen itá || Anut walked beside the river with him.|| ''temen'' = to perform an activity by a river
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| |-
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| ! Instrumental
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| | makôr || Ehok yurasna makôr-nahoyra-kor neat itá. || The adolescent struck (it) repeatedly with a club.|| ''-nahoyra-'' = Repetitive <br/> ''neat'', ''ne'at'' = INTENTIVE
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| |-
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| ! Ablative
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| | risa || Shôni Nan Kamun Koryash risa-kor man itá || First Man emerged from (out of) the snow. || ''Shôni Nan'' "First Man" <br/>''Kamun Koryash'' "All Snow" (the birthplace of First Man)
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| |-
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| ! Locative
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| | neyhi || Yonka asrok tāh-neyhi-kor akun ho itá. || The fly buzzed inside Yonka('s mouth) this morning.|| Note inverse marker ''-tāh'' <br/> ''asrok'' = fly, insect <br/> ''ho'' = earlier this morning.
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| |-
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| ! Vialis
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| | nahke || Pohak tā-nahke-nui shokor-ken ka itá || I saw the river take you through the cave. || ''pohak'' = cave <br/>''shokor'' = to flow<br/>''-ken-'' = CAUS<br/> ''-nui-'' = VIS.EVID
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| |-
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| ! Prolative
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| | roshkar || Ak piri roshkar hô'itá'. || I crossed the street earlier this morning || ''piri'' = street, road, path
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| |-
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| ! Superessive
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| | oros || Ayôhe arupenrô oros-kor yaunke hô'itá.|| The airplane flew over Ayôhe township earlier this morning.|| ''arupenrô'' = airplane <br/> ''yaunke'' = to fly
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| |-
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| ! Subessive
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| | yorha || Ekurki saska yorha-ro-kor kahoro itá. || The turtle swam underneath the ice.|| ''ekurki'' = turtle <br/>''saska'' = ice<br/>kahoro = ''to swim''
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| |-
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| ! Ablative-Superessive
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| | isuk || (Example)|| (Example)||
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| |-
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| ! Ablative-Subessive
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| | royna || (Example)|| (Example)||
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| |-
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| ! Riverine
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| | temen|| No si-kurasno temen-kor rohnas itá.|| The girls supposedly were playing by the river.||
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| |-
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| ! Montaigne
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| | yayak|| Kahno chôri yayak chire itá || The boy went up the mountain.||
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| |}
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| These auxiliaries are often confused for adpositions, or relational nouns, but unlike adpositions and locative nouns, these auxiliaries are full-fledged verbs. If inverse marking is required, the prefix ''tā/tāh'' is still prefixed to the auxiliary verb. Likewise, aspect and modality markers are attached to the auxiliary, a process that occurs only with verbs in the language, never with nouns. Moreover, these auxiliaries can stand alone as independent verbs, such as ''Kosmakis Anut yampe itá'' "Anut walked with Koshmak" (''yampe '' = to be arm-in-arm; c.f. ''yanup'' "elbow").
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| ====Clitics==== | | ====Clitics==== |