Kola: Difference between revisions
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Derivational morphology | Derivational morphology | ||
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===Nouns=== | |||
===Pronouns=== | |||
===Adjectives=== | |||
===Verbs=== | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
===Constituent order=== | ===Constituent order=== |
Revision as of 11:34, 21 September 2017
Kola (Native: ጅቆለ /d͡ʒɨkʼolə/, Latin script: Jïqolä) is a Bantu language spoken by the Kola people .
Introduction
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Labial | Coronal | Palatal/ Postalveolar |
Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | labialized | laminal1 | apical1 | plain | labialized | |||||
Nasal | m | mʷ | n | ɲ | ŋ | ŋʷ | ||||
Stop | ejective | pʼ | tʼ | (ʈʼ) | kʼ | kʷʼ | ||||
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | (ʈʰ) | kʰ | kʷʰ | ʔ | ||||
voiced | b | d | (ɖ) | ɡ | ɡʷ | |||||
Affricate | ejective | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ | |||||||
aspirated | t͡ʃʰ | |||||||||
voiced | d͡ʒ | |||||||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s | (ʂ) | ʃ | χ | χʷ | ħ | h | |
voiced | v | z | (ʐ) | (ʒ)3 | ʁ | ʁʷ | ʕ | |||
Approximant | l | j | w | |||||||
Tap/Trill | r |
Notes:
1 The consonants /tʼ, tʰ, d, s, z/ may be either apical or laminal in the standard language. The stops /ʈʼ, ʈʰ, d/ may be dental or alveolar.
2 The consonants /ʈʼ, ʈʰ, ɖ, ʂ, ʐ/ are apical alveolar or post-alveolar. They occur dialectally and correspond to standard /t͡ʃʼ, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ, ʃ, d͡ʒ/ respectively. In these dialects,/tʼ, tʰ, d/ are laminal and/or dental.
3 The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ has been lost in the standard language (where they occur in free variation), but is still present in some dialects.
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
High | i | ɨ | u |
Mid | e | ə | o |
Low | a |
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
The maximum allowed syllable structure is CVCC word-finally and CVC otherwise. Consonant clusters with more than two consonants are broken up by inserting the epenthetic vowel /ɨ/. /ɨ/ is also added (in speech only) after a word-final consonant cluster when the following word begins in a vowel.
Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. When this would happen, they are separated with epenthetic consonants such as /j/, /w/, or /ʔ/.
Morphophonology
Sandhi
Consonant Mutations
Spirantization:
p’, pʰ > f
b, w . v
t’, tʰ, t͡s’ > s
d, l, r > z
t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ > ʃ
(d͡ʒ > ʒ)
(t͇’, t͇ʰ, d͇ > θ͇, θ͇, ð͇)
k’, kʰ, g > χ, ħ, ʕ
ŋ, ʔ > ʁ
Nasalization:
p’, t’, (t͇’), t͡s’, t͡ʃ’, k(ʷ)’ > pʰ, tʰ, (t͇ʰ), s, t͡ʃʰ, k(ʷ)ʰ
w, j > b, d͡ʒ
l, r > d
ŋ(ʷ), ʔ > g(ʷ)
χ, ʁ > ħ, ʕ
Ø > ɲ / _V
Palatalization:
ŋ, ʔ > j
k’, kʰ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ
χ, ħ, h > ʃ
g, ʁ, ʕ > d͡ʒ, (ʒ, ʒ)
Labialization:
ŋ, ʔ, k’, kʰ, g > ŋʷ, w, kʷ’, kʷʰ, gʷ
χ, ħ, h > χʷ
ʁ, ʕ > ʁʷ
Historical Phonology
Grand master plan for Kola (ጅቆለ)
(Proto-Bantu reconstruction taken from Wikipedia.[1] To avoid confusion, Proto-Bantu *j is written ɟ)
ɟ > Ø / V_a, ɲ_a
ɟ > Ø / (i/ɪ)_ (i/ɪ)
p, b > p͡f, b͡v / _i, _u
t, d > t͡s, d͡z / _i, _u
c, ɟ > c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ / _i, _u
k, g > k͡x, g͡ɣ / _i, _u
ɪ, ʊ > i, u
i, e, u, o > j, j, w, w (transfers high tone to following vowel) / _V
V́, VV > V: (VV = doubled vowel)
ie, ei > e:
uo, ou > o:
ai, ae, au, ao > e:, e:, o:, o:
b, d, ɟ, g > β̞, l, j, ɰ / not preceded by nasal
p͡f, b͡v > f, v / not preceded by nasal
t͡s, d͡z > s, z / not preceded by nasal
c͡ç, ɟ͡ʝ > ç, ʝ / not preceded by nasal
k͡x, g͡ɣ > x, ɣ / not preceded by nasal
c, ɟ > t͡s, d͡z / _a(:)
c, ɟ > t͡ɬ, d͡ɮ / _o(:), _u(:)
c, ɟ > t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ / _e(:), _i(:)
[-voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate ] > [-prenasalized +aspirated] (i.e. mp, nt, etc > pʰ, tʰ, etc for all voiceless stops and affricates)
[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate ] > [+voiced] / in grammatical morphemes
[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate] > [+ejective] / otherwise
[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized] / #_, V:_ (i.e. mb, nd, etc > b, d, etc)
[+voiced +prenasalized +stop/affricate] > [-prenasalized +geminate] / V_
NN > N / #_, V:_
velar > palatal / before front vowel
c͡ç’, c͡çʰ, ɟ͡ʝ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ
c’, cʰ, ɟ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ
ç, ʝ > ʃ, ʒ
k͡xʰ, g͡ɣ > qʰ, ɢ
p͡fʰ, b͡v > f, v
t͡sʰ, d͡z > s, z
t͡ɬ’, t͡ɬʰ, d͡ɮ > t͡ʃ’, t͡ʃʰ, d͡ʒ (dialectal t͇’, t͇ʰ, d͇, with t’, tʰ, d being dental)
ɬ, ɮ > ʃ, ʒ (dialectal θ͇, ð͇)
ɰ > ŋ / always / ɰV_ + sporadic
qʰ, ɢ > χ, ʁ
Kw > Kʷ (where K = kʼ, kʰ, ɡ, ŋ, χ, ʁ, x, ɣ)
Kʷ > K / _VKʷ, _VP (where P = labial consonant)
β̞ w, ɰw> w / always / _VKʷ, _VP
β̞ w, ɰw> β̞ , ɰ / otherwise
mw > mʷ / in grammatical prefixes
χ, ʁ > ħ, ʕ (this does not affect the labialized equivalents)
x(ʷ), ɣ(ʷ) > χ(ʷ), ʁ(ʷ)
ʒ > d͡ʒ (not in all dialects)
β̞ > w
a, e, o > ə
a:, e:, o: > a, e, o
i, u > ɨ
i:, u: > i, u
wɨ, jɨ > u, i / _C
ɨ > Ø / _#, VC_C (starting from beginning of word) / disallowed by phonotactics
j > Ø / C_V
ɰ > ʔ
l > r / sporadic
χ, ħ > h / sporadic