Wendlandish

Wendlandish
lyngra Vinnurlænska
Pronunciation	[[Help:IPA|ˈlʏŋːra ʋinʉɐ̯ˈlænska]]
Created by	Lili21
Date	Jul 2016
Setting	Alt-Earth
Ethnicity	Wends/Wendlanders (Vinnurlænsker)
Native speakers	1,700,000 (2016)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Romance Northern Romance Wendlandish
Official status
Official language in	the Wendlands
Regulated by	Academy of the Wendlandish Language akademíla ið lyngra Vinnurlænska

File:Wendlands-flag.png

Flag of the Wendlands

Wendlandish, natively Vinnurlænska or lyngra Vinnurlænska, is a Romance language spoken in an uchronic Earth, in the area of real-world Pomerania. The only member of the Northern Romance branch, Wendlandish has, due to relative and long isolation from the rest of the Romance-speaking world, followed its own path of evolution and has absorbed lots of words, grammatical features, and influence on phonology, from its neighboring languages: most prominently Old Norse, but also Proto-Slavic, Baltic languages, Low German and, more recently, Standard High German and Polish.

Introduction

External history

Wendlandish started as my first "serious" attempt at an a posteriori conlang. I wanted to do a language radically different from other ones in its family, so I decided for this (somewhat unrealistic, I admit) setting: a Romance language spoken in what in the real world is Pomerania (roughly between Schwerin and Gdańsk, up to 50-60 km inland from the coast), with lots of Old Norse, Slavic, Baltic, and Polish influences, totally cut off for ages from other Romance-speaking peoples, and in the end becoming in the 20th century a part of the Soviet Union, something that further characterizes the language.

NOTE: Even if it started out seriously, it later became the closest thing to a jokelang I've done. I actually like Wendlandish and still work on it once in a while, but I tend to add things more because I like them rather than because they would make sense conhistorically.

Internal history

Wendlandish is the official and national language of Wendland — natively Vinnurlond, "the Wendlands" —, officially the Soviet Republic of the Wendlands (repuvlik savjetska Vinnurlandana), a sovereign state in Northern Europe, bordering in the west and south with Germany (Þysklond) and in the south and east with Poland (Sløvjænlond); it has a long coast on the Baltic Sea (mær Vinnurlandana, Sea of the Wendlands), which divides it from Denmark (Danmork) and Sweden (Sværikur).
The capital and largest city, with 980,000 inhabitants, is Vænfjørðin. Other major cities are Þyskarhøjfn (pop. about 75,000) in the west, on the coast opposite the country's largest island, Rygn; and Løgurðurp (pop. about 98,000) in the east; most of the country is rural, with more than 70% of the population being concentrated in and around Vænfjørðin (the second-largest city is actually Praljetarski, just north of Vænfjørðin, with about 160,000 inhabitants).

The population of Wendland, at the last census (2014), amounted to about 1,600,000 people; the total number of native Wendlandish speakers is slightly higher, with at least 100,000 people of Wendlandish origin living in other former Soviet countries and a small community in southern Denmark, mostly descendants of people who escaped from Wendland during Soviet times.

Phonology

Orthography

Wendlandish orthography is phonemic and there is a good overall correspondence between letters and sounds. Uniquely for a Romance language, it does not follow conventions inherited from Latin, taking as models Old Norse and Danish instead.

Letter	Aa	Bb	Dd	Ðð	Ee	Ff	Gg	Hh	Ii	Jj	Kk	Kh kh
Sound	/a/ /ɑː/	/b/	/d/	/ð/	/e/ /eː/	/f/	/ɣ/	/h/	/ɪ/ /iː/	/j/	/k/	/x/
Letter	Ll	Mm	Nn	ng	Oo	Pp	Rr	Ss	Sj sj	Tt	Tj tj	Ts ts
Sound	/l/	/m/	/n/	/ŋ/	/ɔ/ /oː/	/p/	/r/	/s/	/ʃ/	/t/	/tʃ/	/ts/
Letter	Þþ	Uu	Vv	Yy	Zz	Ææ	Øø
Sound	/θ/	/ʉ/ /uː/	/v/	/ʏ/ /yː/	/z/	/æ/ /æː/	/œ/ /øː/

The digraphs aj, av, ej, ov, and æj represent the diphthongs /aɪ̯ aʊ̯ eɪ̯ ɔʊ̯ ɛɪ̯/ but are not treated as separate letters, unlike digraphs for consonants.

ng does not have an upper-case version as it does not appear at the beginning of words.

hv, hn, hm, hr, hl, and hj all have a silent h in present-day Wendlandish. hj is completely silent in hjints "five" and related words.

Loanwords are usually adapted without exceptions, like e.g. Polish zakład > zakvat "factory", or German Übermensch > ybermensj. Foreign surnames from languages written in the Latin alphabet are usually however kept the same (except for a few personalities whose names are completely adapted, like Kristsafir Kolum (Christopher Columbus) or Jøna ið Ark (Joan of Arc)); names from other languages were formerly romanized into Wendlandish from their pronunciation (e.g. Лермонтов > Ljermantaf), nowadays pure transliterations are preferred (e.g. Горбачёв > Gorbatjov, pronounced either [gɔɐ̯baˈtʃɔʊ̯] or [ˈɣɔɐ̯batʃɔʊ̯]).

Acute accents may be added on all vowels to mark stress; this is in formal writings mandatory word-finally (-ǽ is very common because of Greek -τική words such as maþematikǽ "mathematics" or politikǽ "politics") and in some plurisyllabic words ending in -s if the vowel before it is stressed (e.g. granís "frontier, border"). In colloquial writing, this is not usually done.

/j/ is sometimes written i instead of j when morpheme-final before a vowel-initial morpheme, e.g. skoliejtyk "school-", from skoli (school) + -ejtyk (adjectival suffix, < Lat. -āticum).

Cyrillic orthography

There is an unofficial Cyrillic orthography for Wendlandish, mostly based on Russian, which was developed unofficially during Soviet times and is still commonly seen used by Soviet nostalgics. The Wendlandish Cyrillic is basically the Russian alphabet extended with the letters ө ү ѣ ҫ ҙ standing for Latin ø y æ þ ð. The letters ш ч ц stand for the Latin digraphs sj tj ts respectively. Russian words are usually never changed, even if they reflect sounds not distinguished in Wendlandish.

Examples of official Latin script vs. unofficial Cyrillic orthography:

• The Wendlands are a country in Northern Europe.

Vinnurlond sints un gasudarstva i Nurð ið Øyropa.

Виннурлонд синц ун государство и Нурҙ иҙ Өүропа.

• Tjervona Vihtørala is a city located near the German border.

Tjervona Vihtørala jatt una sjitæt sje lukatse yst þyskriska granísla.

Червона Вихтөрала ятт уна шитѣт ше лукаце үст ҫүскриска гранисла.

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labio-dental	Dental	Alveolar	Post-alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m			n			ŋ
Plosive	p b			t d			k (g)
Fricative		f	θ ð	s z	ʃ		x ɣ	h
Affricate				ts	tʃ
Approximant		ʋ (v)				j
Trill				r
Lateral app.				l

/g/ is not a native phoneme of Wendlandish, but some people use it in unassimilated loanwords which originally had it. For example granís "border" is a totally assimilated loanword (from Polish granica) and is pronounced [ɣraˈniːs], while gató "cake (in specific contexts)" (from French gâteau) isn't and may be pronounced [gaˈtoː], but more commonly is [ɣaˈtoː].

Similarly, /v/ is used by some speakers instead of /ʋ/ (and its coda allophone [ʊ̯]) in words of Polish origin, even in "assimilated" loanwords, like javnosj "public" [ˈjɑːvnɔʃ] (from jawność) or tjervon "red" [tʃɛrˈvoːn] (from czerwony) — standard pronunciations being [ˈjɑːʊ̯nɔʃ] and [tʃɛrˈʋoːn]. This does not happen, anyway, with loanwords from any other source.
In standard Wendlandish, [v] otherwise only appears as an allophone of /ʋ/ after /k/ — even if this too only happens in borrowings, usually learned Latin words like kvæstsura "public office" [kvæsˈtsuːra] (reborrowing from quaestūra), kvadrats "square" [kvaˈdrats] (reb. < quadrātum), or inkvizitjona "research group; scientific research; Inquisition" [iŋkviziˈtʃoːna] (reb. < inquīsītiōnem); but also from other sources, including Polish /w/, like zakvat "factory" [ˈzɑːkvat], (< zakład). Note that foreign /gv/ is usually borrowed as /kv/ too, or /ɣ/ before /u/ or /o/ (e.g. the two assimilated loanwords kvjast "star" [ˈkvjast] < Pol. gwiazda; and gosj "nail" [ˈɣoːʃ] < Pol. gwóźdź).

Phonemic /v/ is however much more common than phonemic /g/, even if used by a minority of speakers.

/z/ appears exclusively in Polish and Russian loanwords.

Vowels

	Front	Near-front	Central	Back
High	iː yː		ʉ	uː
Near-high		ɪ ʏ
High-mid	e eː ø			oː
Mid
Low-mid	œ			ɔ
Near-low	æ æː
Low			a	ɑː
Diphthongs	eɪ̯ ɛɪ̯	aɪ̯	aʊ̯	ɔʊ̯

An unstressed schwa vowel appears in order to break some consonant clusters, like in some first person singular verbs - e.g. øml "I walk" - as well as in all synthetic past 3rd plural forms in -rtn. The realization of this vowel varies regionally: in Vænfjørðin and all other Central dialects it is usually [ə] (e.g. [ˈøməl], fyrtn [ˈfʏɐ̯tən]); it is [ɯ] across the Eastern Wendlands (e.g. [ˈømɯl], [ˈfʏɐ̯tɯn]), while the Western Wendlands are more varied, with notably [u] in areas around Þyskarhøyfn (e.g. [ˈømul], [ˈfʏɐ̯tun]).

Morphology

Nouns

Wendlandish nouns inflect for definitiveness and number; the definite article is suffixed and changes for gender, being -il for masculine nouns and -la for feminine ones (with l becoming r if there's another l in the stem).
It is not always possible to know what is the gender of the noun; generally nouns in -a are feminine (e.g. margva "carrot", tøla "table") as are many in -e (e.g. førke "girl") but for many other nouns it is not possible to know it from the form, e.g. kan "cane" is feminine but kæn "dog" is masculine; similarly oran (eagle) and agjin (fire) are both masculine while jalin (deer) is feminine. Some nouns may be used in both genders: ælektra (tram/Stadtbahn), for example, is most commonly feminine but is also used as masculine due to its etymology (it is a shortening of ælektratsuk "electric train"; also "train", pojst, is masculine).

The basic pattern is as follows:

	Masculine		Feminine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Indefinite	pisk "fish"	pisker	kara "house"	karar
Definite	piskil	piskylir	karla	karallar

Examples of allomorphy:

pufl (m) (people): pufl (sg. ind.) - puflir (pl. ind.) - puflir (sg. def.) - puflyllir (pl. def.) (see below for the -ir plural)

lynga (f) (language): lynga - lyngar - lyngra - lyngallar

Exception:

rubil (m) (ruble): rubil - rubiler - rubiril - rubirylir

Other special cases:

• Some masculine nouns in -ur lose the u in declined forms, e.g. kongur (king): kongur - kongler - kongril - kongrylir (note dissimilation of kongr- to kongl- in the plural indefinite);
  • Masculine nouns in -lur further dissimilate the resulting *-lr to -ll, e.g. milur (smile): milur - millir - miller - millyllir;
• Masculine nouns in -ð change this consonant to d in declined forms, e.g. ølð (ship): ølð - ølder - øldil - øldylir;
  • This change does not happen after -r and -j, e.g. arvejð (work): arvejð - arvejðer - arvejðil - arvejðylir;
• Some masculine nouns have plural indefinite in -ir, as a result of non-regularized original Latin -ōs. pufl (people) is possibly the most noticeable;
• Feminine nouns in -æt (< Latin -itate) change this final t into ð in declined forms, e.g. frjæt "truth": frjæt - frjæðir - frjæðla - frjæðillar;
• As seen in frjæt, feminine nouns ending in a consonant have i as the thematic vowel for plural forms, e.g. forbindasj (-asj < Lat. -ātiō) "connection": forbindasj - forbindasjir - forbindasjla - forbindasjillar.

Some nouns are often used without article, unless it is qualified. This is true for most city names (Vænfjørðin but mudern Vænfjørðinil) and many names of sciences (eterafrøj "meteorology" but eterafrøjla ið vintsisjm søkulir "20th century meteorology").

Adjectives

Wendlandish has two adjectival declensions, one that differentiates between masculine and feminine in the singular, and another one that doesn't:

	1st declension		2nd declension
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine and Feminine
Singular	kælt "hot"	kælta	rjal "hidden"
Plural	kælts		rjalir

Note that many adjectives of the 1st declension with i change this vowel into u in the feminine, deriving from Latin o, e.g. bin "good": bin (m. sg.) - buna (f. sg.) - bints (pl.). As this example shows, ns becomes nts in all such plurals.

1st declension plurals are always written by adding an s to the masculine singular, but sometimes, in clusters, there are pronunciation changes, as the original last consonant is never pronounced (in a few cases such as -mb it never is even in the singular). Some examples:

muld "new": muld [ˈmul(d)] - mulda [ˈmuːlda] - mulds [ˈmuls]

durf "cool" (colloquial): durf [ˈduɐ̯f] - durfa [ˈduːɐ̯fa] - durfs [ˈduɐ̯s]

lymb "beautiful": lymb [ˈlʏm] - limba [ˈliːmba] - lymbs [ˈlʏms]

savjetsk "Soviet": savjetsk [saˈʋjetsk] - savjetska [saˈʋjetska] - savjetsks [saˈʋjes(k)s]

Most adjectives are of the 1st declension; the 2nd declension ones mostly come from Latin -e adjectives or Middle High German -ik / Danish -ig ones (e.g. jegentsli "true, real"). There are, however, a few oddities, like tjervon (red), of Polish origin, being a 2nd declension adjective.

It should be kept in mind that two color terms have irregular declensions: ruds "brown" - fem. ruda and pl. rudar; orants "orange" - fem. orantja and pl. orantjar.

Irregular adjectives

There are eight (or nine) completely irregular adjectives with synthetic comparatives and superlatives, inherited from Latin — the reason for the count of eight or nine is that one of them, irregular from Latin, has been completely displaced in modern Wendlandish in its positive degree only by a Russian borrowing.
All of them also follow irregular declensions (similar to ruds and orants), but the comparative is invariable.

The irregular adjectives are:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
bin (buna, bunar) "good"	milir "better"	øftym (øftma, øftmar) "best"
møl (mala, malar) "bad"	pjajir "worse"	pjasjym (pjasjima, pjasjimar) "worst"
balsjoj (balsjaja, balsjí) "big, large"	møyr "larger"	mesjym (mesjima, mesjimar) "largest"
møyn (majna, majnar) "big, large" (obsolete)
pør (parva, parvar) "small"	minir "smaller"	minym (minima, minimar) "smallest"
sufør (sufra, sufrar) "high, tall, upper"	sufjarir "higher, taller"	sufrøm (sufrema, sufremar) "highest, tallest, uppermost"
infør (infra, infrar) "short, lower"	infjarir "shorter"	infym (infima, infimar) "shortest, lowermost"
pistør (pistra, pistrar) "(immediately) next, following"	pistjarir "next, following" (farther); "farther"	pistrøm (pistrema, pistremar) "last; farthest"
jastør (jastra, jastrar) "external, outside"	jastjarir "more external; protruding, farther"	jastrøm (jastrema, jastremar) "last; farthest"

More on pistjarir/jastjarir and pistrøm/jastrøm: the forms of pistør are more often used when talking about things and their placement, as in a number - e.g. pistrema pørsjin "last position"; pistrøm køyðik ið sjirtiril "the writer's last book"; pistrema pisjuljæðla "the last chance". The forms of jastør are used when talking about spatial placement - e.g. jastrema kara i vegil "last house in the street". In some cases, both can be used - e.g. jastremar/pistremar persunar ið propkala "the last people of the queue"; some phrases are however mostly idiomatic, so that "last train" and "next train" seem pistjarir and pistrøm cases but the actual terms used are jastjarir pojst(il) and jastrøm pojst(il).

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives are among those that are mostly irregular:

	mør (my, mine)		tsur (your-sg, yours-sg)		ifyr (his, her(s))	nitte (our(s))		vjatte (your-pl, yours-pl)		ifovr (their-m, theirs-m)	ifjør (their-f, theirs-f)
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine and Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine and Feminine	Masculine and Feminine
Singular	mør	mæj	tsur	tso	ifyr	nitte	nittra	vjatte	vjattra	ifovr	ifjør
Plural	mjæ		tsy			nøtti	nitte	vjætti	vjatte

Ordinal numbers

Ordinals from 1st to 4th are all irregular; all others are made by adding -isjm to the numeral (cognate with French -ième and Italian -esimo among others), and are invariable (e.g. hjints [ˈin(t)s] "five" → hjintsisjm [inˈtsiʃm]; sjek "six" → sjekisjm).

	frim (first)		sjunður (second)		tjars (third)		hvæjrð (fourth)
	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Singular	frim		sjunður	sjonð	tjars	tjarsja	hvæjrð	hvæjrta
Plural	frim	frime	sjynð	sjunðe	tjærs	tjarsje	hværð	hvæjrte

Note that ð is silent in the forms sjonð [ˈʃɔn], sjynð [ˈʃʏn], hvæjrð [ˈʋɛɪ̯ɐ̯], and hværð [ˈʋæɐ̯].

Pronouns and demonstratives

Wendlandish pronouns distinguish three forms — nominative, accusative, and indirect — as relics of the Latin case system, but not all pronouns distinguish all of them. The 3rd person pronouns derive from ipse, ipsa, ipsī, ipsae.

		Nominative	Accusative	Indirect
1sg		jag [ˈjaːɣ]	maj	mi
2sg		tsu	taj	tajv [ˈtaju]
3sg	M	if	ifju	ifi
	F	ifja
1pl		novr		nøym
2pl		vovr		vøym
3sg	M	ifi	ifov	ifir
	F	ifjæ	ifjar

The two main demonstratives, "this" and "that", derive from locutions like ille hīc and ille illīc. The third demonstrative, "same", derives from īdem. Demonstratives have a neuter invariable form used as a pronoun:

	lek (this)			lylik (that)			ide (the same)
	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Singular	lek	lajk	lyk	lylik	lajlik	lyðlik	ide	jæde	ide
Plural	lik	læk		lilik	lælik		jide	jajde

Wendlandish correlatives are the following ones:

	Demonstrative	Relative	Interrogative	Indefinite	Universal
Person	talf	hval, hjeð	hjalf?	ælfeltalf	intestalf
Type	tal		hval?	ælfeltal	intestal
Thing	hvid	hvid, hjeð	hjid?	ælfelhvid	int
Quantity, number	tit	hjeð (hvit)	hvit?	ælfeltit
Location	tiv	yv	hjyv?	ælfeliv	intesiv
Manner	tølmi	hvumi	hvumi?	ælfelmið	intemið
Time	tan	hvan	hvan?	ælfeltsu	intetsu

Negatives are formed by adding naj before the demonstrative, e.g. naj talf "no one".

"Why" and "because" are both translated as hvofur. Despite the similarity to e.g. Danish hvorfor, it is actually a derivation from Latin quō pro.

Numerals

Wendlandish numerals are mostly inherited from Latin, but there are two notable contaminations from Slavic (in the words for six and eight) and two Germanic borrowings (eleven and twelve). Pronunciation is added for some numbers that have an irregular pronunciation, further worn down from the orthographically represented one.

Digit	Cardinal	Pronunciation
0	nil
1	un / una
2	dov	[ˈdɔʊ̯] or [ˈdoː]
3	sjajr	[ˈʃaɪ̯ɐ̯] or [ˈʃæː]
4	hvatsír	[ʋɐˈ(t)siː]
5	hjints	[ˈin(t)s]
6	sjek
7	seft
8	tom
9	nym
10	dets
11	jælfu
12	tovl
13	sjeðts	[ˈʃets] or [ˈʃes]
14	hvatsirðir	[ʋaˈsiɐ̯ði]
15	hjindets	[ˈindets]
16	sjæðits
17	siþets
18	tøðts	[ˈtøts] or [ˈtøs]
19	njænts
20	vints
21	vints-e-un(a)
22	vints-e-dov
30	sjinta arch. also sjijenta
40	hvasjenta
50	hjinfenta	[ˈiɱfenta]
60	sjekænta
70	sjoftæjnta
80	tøjnta
90	nonænta
100	sjønt

Note that all tens are stressed on their first syllable, so [ˈʋaːʃenta], [ˈiɱfenta], [ˈʃeːkænta], [ˈʃɔftɛi̯nta], [ˈtøʏ̯nta], [ˈnɔnænta].

Numbers above 100 are simply compounds but not written together: 101 is sjønt un(a), 102 sjønt dov, etc.

Digit	Cardinal	Pronunciation
200	dusjænts
300	sjajrsjænts
400	hvasjinjænts
500	hjinjænts
600	sjisjænts
700	sjæftjænts
800	tinjænts
900	nøjnænts
1,000	mild
1,001	mild et un(a)
2,000	dov mia
10,000	dets mia
1,000,000	un mylðan
2,000,000	dov mylðaner
1,000,000,000	un mildjørð	[umˈmiltʃøɐ̯ð]
2,000,000,000	dov mildjørðer
1,000,000,000,000	un biðljørð arch. also bidljørð
1,000,000,000,000,000	un sjiljørð

Verbs

Wendlandish verbs inherit the four conjugations of Latin, but has categorized them in different classes as sound changes greatly modified the original verbs. The four main verb classes are:

1. -æjr verbs, that is, descendants of the Latin first conjugation, like mæjr "to love" (< amāre) or ømlæjr "to walk" (< ambulāre);
2. -ajr verbs, descendants of the Latin second conjugation, like viðajr "to see" (< vidēre) or sfajr "to be aware" (< sapēre);
3. -ir verbs, descendants of the Latin third and fourth conjugations - like hrajðir "to believe" (< crēdere), hnovskir "to know" (< gnōscere), or dirmir "to sleep" (< dormīre), inørnir "to intervene" (< intervenīre). Those which descend from the third conjugation are called the -øjmur group as their first person plural present indicative ends like that (e.g. hriðøjmur "we believe"), while those which descend from the fourth one are the -ymur group (e.g. dirmymur "we sleep").
4. -ær/-er verbs, which do not descend from Latin but are instead made by a generalization of the pre-Wendlandish -er infinitive suffix added to other roots, like milær "to smile" (< Old Norse smíla). This is the only currently productive conjugation - e.g. forkastsær "to have lunch"; modern colloquial davnloder "to download", sælfijer "to take a selfie", buhojer "to get drunk".

Present indicative

The present indicative usually has two principal stems: a "stressed" stem, used for the singular and third plural, and an "unstressed" one for first and second plural. The infinitive stem is usually the unstressed one, except for -ir verbs of the -øjmur group.

	1st (-æjr)	2nd (-ajr)	3rd (-ir (-øjmur))	3rd (-ir (-ymur))	4th (-ær)	4th (-er)
	ømlæjr "to walk"	viðajr "to see"	hnovskir "to know"	dirmir "to sleep"	milær "to smile"	rjaser "to cut"
jag	øml	vajðe	hnovsk	dørm	milæ	rjase
tsu	ømlar	vajðir	hnovskir	dørmir	milær	rjaser
if / ifja	ømlat	vajðit	hnovskit	dørmit	milæt	rjaset
novr	ømlømur	viðøjmur	hnuskøjmur	dirmymur	miløjmur	rjasymur
vovr	ømlætir	viðætir	hnuskætir	dirmitir	milætir	rjasitir
ifi / ifjæ	ømlints	vajðints	hnovskunts	dørmunts	milænts	rjasents
(impersonal)	ømlitse	vajðitse	hnovskitse	dørmitse	milætse	rjasetse

Endings are only stressed in the first and second plural forms, except in -er verbs ([ˈrjaːsʏmuɐ̯], [ˈrjaːsitiɐ̯] but [miˈløʏ̯muɐ̯], [miˈlæːtiɐ̯]).

Most third conjugation -øjmur verbs have umlaut in their conjugation, namely:

• i-umlaut in the second and third person singular:

pjatir (to ask): jag pjat, tsu pjætir, if pjætit

hrajðir (to believe): jag hrajð, tsu hræðir, if hræðit

• u-umlaut in the third person plural, and also in the first person singular for a few verbs with i in all forms:

pjatir (to ask): jag pjat, ... ifi pjotunts

hrajðir (to believe): jag hrajð, ... ifi hrøyðunts

bivir (to drink): jag byv, tsu bivir, ... ifi byvunts

esjajpir (to begin) has this change in the 1SG and 3PL despite having aj in other forms: jag esjyp, tsu esjajpir, if esjajpit, novr esjipøjmur, vovr esjipætir, ifi esjypunts

Some -æjr verbs have æj in the first person singular and a in all other stressed-stem forms:

mæjr (to love): jag æjm, tsu amar, if amat, novr mømur, vovr mætir, if amints, amatse

kanæjr (to sing): jag kæjnt, tsu kantar, if kantat, novr kanømur, vovr kanætir, if kantints, kantatse.

A few verbs have ej in 1SG and 3PL (and sometimes in 1PL and 2PL too but unstressed) and ø in 2SG and 3SG. This is actually the result of i-umlaut on Latin au (/aʊ̯/ > */eʏ̯/ > /eɪ̯/) and not a kind of u-umlaut. ejðir (to hear) is the prototypical example - note also the etymologically related iniðir (to learn):

ejðir (to hear) < audīre: jag ejð, tsu øðir, if øðit, novr ejðymur, vovr ejðitir, if ejðunts, øðitse

iniðir (to learn) < inaudīre: jag inejð, tsu inøðir, if inøðit, novr iniðymur, vovr iniðitir, if inejðunts, inøðitse

Imperative

The active imperative is always the bare stressed stem, thus in most cases it is identical in form to the first person singular (except for -ajr verbs): øml! "walk!"; vajð! "see!"; pjat! "ask!". Note that the imperative too has the a → æj change, thus: æjm! "love!"; kæjnt! "sing!".

The passive imperative is formed by adding se before the active imperative: se æjm! "be loved!"; se hnovsk! "be known!".

Jas is an exception as its imperative is si! (the same form as subjunctive 1sg).

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect indicative is regular, and has slightly different forms for all conjugations. Note that the 3rd -ymur were once distinct from the 3rd -øjmur ones, but the original forms (which often caused umlaut) have been regularized and replaced by the -øjmur forms. The stem is always the unstressed one.

	1st (-æjr)	2nd (-ajr)	3rd (-ir)	4th (-ær/-er)
	ømlæjr "to walk"	viðajr "to see"	hnovskir "to know"	milær "to smile"
jag	ømlæjma	viðema	hnuskjama	milæma
tsu	ømlæjmar	viðemar	hnuskjamar	milæmar
if / ifja	ømlaft	viðaft	hnuskjaft	milæft
novr	ømlømmur	viðømmur	hnuskjømmur	milømmur
vovr	ømlæjmet	viðemit	hnuskjamit	milæmet
ifi / ifjæ	ømlæjnts	viðajnts	hnuskjants	milæjants
(impersonal)	ømlaftse	viðaftse	hnuskjaftse	milæftse

Future

The future tense, in Wendlandish, is formed analytically with the auxiliary verb kap (< Latin capiō) — which is defective and has only its present forms and the past participle — plus the infinitive. The conjugation of kap is: kap - kapir - kaft - køjmur - kapætir - køpunts - kaftse. The past participle is kaft.

Present participle and continuous tenses

The present participle is an important formation in Wendlandish as it is used in forming continuous tenses — a different construction from other Romance languages like e.g. Portuguese estou falando/a falar or French je suis en train de parler.

The Wendlandish present participle is formed by the corresponding Latin accusative — it is however uninflected as gender wasn't distinguished on it in Latin and due to sound changes both the original -ntem and -ntēs forms both came to end in -nts. Note that the gerund did not merge as it underwent umlaut (thus forms in -ønts for all verbs); while unused in modern Wendlandish, it is actually attested in the earliest texts but with a future passive participle meaning.
The present participle is extremely simple to form, by removing the infinitive ending and adding -æjnts for -æjr verbs, -jants for -ajr and -ir verbs, and -nts for -ær verbs:

ømlæjr "to walk" (stem øml-) → ømlæjnts "walking"

viðajr "to see" (stem við-) → viðjants "seeing" (such forms are often pronounced without the /ð/, thus [ʋɪˈjants], [raɪ̯ˈjants] (hrajðjants "believing") and so on)

hnovskir "to know" (hnovsk-) → hnovskjants "knowing"

inørnir "to intervene" (inørn-) → inørnjants "intervening"

milær "to smile" (milæ-) → milænts "smiling"

These forms are used with the corresponding tenses of jas (present or imperfect), while the future is simply made with the kap auxiliary verb (it was once a regular form with the infinitive of jas, but it was later omitted so earlier jag kap jas ømlæjnts "I will be walking" → modern jag kap ømlæjnts (c.f. simple future jag kap ømlæjr "I will walk")):

jag so viðjants "I am seeing", jag jarm viðjants "I was seeing"

tsu jar jants "you are saying", tsu jarar jants "you were saying"

if jatt forkastsænts "he is eating lunch", if jart forkastsænts "he was eating lunch"

novr sørm arvejðænts "we are working", novr jørum arvejðænts "we were working"

vovr jæsts gljandænts "you (pl.) are looking", vovr jærits gljandænts "you (pl.) were looking"

ifi sints hrjæjnts "they are making", ifi jarants hrjæjnts "they were making"

Past, past participle, and perfect tenses

The past in Wendlandish is formed by using the past participle preceded by the auxiliary verb hav (< habeō). Past participles are invariable when used with verbs, but decline when used as adjectives or nouns.
The past participle is formed with the unstressed stems and, generally:

• for -æjr, verbs by removing the ending and adding -øt (fem.: -ata, pl. -ats)
• for -ajr and -ir verbs, by removing the ending and adding -yt (fem.: -ita, pl. -its)
• for -ær and -er verbs, by removing the -(e)r and adding -t, hence -æt/-t (fem.: -æta/-ta, pl. -æts/-ts).

Examples:

ømlæjr "to walk" → ømløt "walked" (ømlata, ømlats)

delajr "to destroy" → delyt "destroyed" (delita, delits)

hnovskir "to know" (unstr. stem hnusk-) → hnuskyt "known" (hnuskita, hnuskits)

øðir "to hear" → øðyt "heard" (øðita, øðits)

milær "to smile" → milæt "smiled" (milæta, milæts)

rjaser "to cut" → rjast "cut" (rjasta, rjasts)

Some verbs have irregular participles, directly inherited from Latin ones and not remodelled, or further modified by other changes:

viðajr "to see" → vys "seen" (< vīsum; fem.: vira, pl. viss)

inørnir "to intervene" → inørjønts (< interventum; fem.: inørjanta, pl. inørjantss)

jaðir "to eat" → øs "eaten" (< ēsum; fem.: era, pl. ess)

fjarir "to carry, bear" → løt "carried" (< lātum; fem. lata, pl. lats)

aðfjarir [ˌaʊ̯ˈfjaːriɐ̯] "to give, bring" → adløt "given" (< adlātum; fem. adlata, pl. adlats)

defjarir "to take" → deløt "taken" (< dēlātum; fem. delata, pl. delats)

vaðir "to go" → vøþt "went" (< analog. *vādītum; fem. vaþta, pl. vaþts)

tenajr "to have" → tytt "had" (< analog. *tenītum; fem. titta, pl. titts)

ljasjir "to read" → løht "read" (< lēctum; fem. lajta, pl. lajts)

idelajsjir "to understand" → ideljøt "understood" (< intellectum; fem. ideljahta, pl. ideljahts)

pisir "to be able to" → puts "that could be done" (< analog. *possutum; fem. pitsa, pl. pitss)

vjal "to want" → vylt "wanted" (< analog. *volītum; fem. vølta, pl. vølts)

ditsir "to say" → føt "said" (< analog. *fātum; fem. fata, pl. fats)

prilufir "to talk" → lukut "talked" (< locūtum; fem. lukuta, pl. lukuts)

eðpiskir "to find" → aðøft "found" (< adeptum; fem. atjafta, pl. atjats)

The past is formed by using the present forms of hav in front of the past participle. Its forms are: hav - hajs - hejt - høymur - hætir - hents - hejtse.
The past perfect is formed with the past forms of hav instead: højm - hømyst - hømyt - hømyr - hømysts - hørtn
The future perfect uses the present forms of hav, followed by kaft (past participle of kap) and the infinitive.

Examples: fjør "I carry" - hav løt "I have carried" - højm løt "I had carried" - hav kaft fjarir "I will have carried"

The renarrative past

The renarrative past is a tense derived by the old Latin perfect (with analogically created forms for formerly deponent verbs), but in Wendlandish it marks evidentiality and can be translated as "I've been told that X" or more generically "[subj] apparently X". Compare these two examples:

If jatt ipist, hvofur if hejt aðøft propka. "He is late because he found a traffic jam." (I know for sure he was stuck in a traffic jam, hence the regular past (hejt aðøft < *habet adeptum))

If jatt ipist, hvofur if eðpiskerit propka. "He is late because, he told me, he found a traffic jam." (I'm just reporting what he told me, without knowing for sure he was stuck in a traffic jam, hence the renarrative past (eðpiskerit < *adipīscerit)).

The renarrative past conjugation is notable for the widespread use of umlaut (often umlaut in the first person singular is the only distinction between it and the present) and for its high irregularities as, most often, Wendlandish kept the Latin irregular stems (cf. kaðir "to fall", if kæðit "he falls", but if kesjiþt "he apparently fell" (< cadere, cadit, cecidit)).

	1st (-æjr)	2nd (-ajr)	3rd (-ir)	4th (-ær/-er)
	ømlæjr "to walk"	viðajr "to see"	øðir "to hear"	milær "to smile"
jag	ømlø	vyð	øði	milø
tsu	ømløsti	vyðsti	øðsti	miløsti
if / ifja	ømløt	vyþt	øþt	miløt
novr	ømlørm	vyðyrm	øðyrm	milørm
vovr	ømløstir	vyðstir	øðstir	miløstir
ifi / ifjæ	ømlørtn	vyðørtn	øðørtn	milørtn
(impersonal)	ømløtse	vyþtse	øþtse	miløtse

Some of the most common irregular renarrative past stems (excluding completely irregular verbs, whose conjugations are found in the next section):

hnovskir "to know", if hnovskit "he knows", if hnøjt (stem hnøj-) "he apparently knew" (< gnōscere, gnōscit, gnōvit)

kaðir "to fall", if kæðit "he falls", if kesjiþt (stem kesjið-) "he apparently fell" (< cadere, cadit, cecidit)

kurir "to run", if kyrit "he runs", if kukyrt (stem kukyr-) "he apparently ran" (< currere, currit, cucurrit)

mirðajr "to bite", if mirðit "he bites", if mumirþt (stem mumirð-) "he apparently bit" (< mordēre, mordet, momordit)

paskir "to feed", if pæskit "he feeds", if pøjt (stem pøj-) "he apparently fed" (< pāscere, pāscit, pāvit)

spindajr "to assure", if spindit "he assures", if spufønts (stem spufønd-) "he apparently assured" (< spondēre, spondet, spopondit)

tangir "to touch, to get to know", if tængit "he touches", if tetajt (stem tetaj-) "he apparently touched" (< tangere, tangit, tetigit)

tekir "to weave", if tikit "he weaves", if tøht (stem tøk-) "he apparently wove" (< texere, texit, texuit)

vinsjir "to win", if vinsjit "he wins", if visjt (stem visj-) "he apparently won" (< vincere, vincit, vīcit)

The verb eðpiskir [eʊ̯ˈpiskiɐ̯] (to find) (< Pre-Wend. *adipīscere) shows a development common to all verbs whose renarrative past was only formed in Pre-Wendlandish because they were deponent in Latin and therefore had no perfect. Unlike what happens in their present, these verbs have some form of -ir throughout their renarrative past: jag eðpiskri, tsu eðpiskersti, if eðpiskerit, novr eðpisklyrm, vovr eðpiskerstir, ifi eðpisklørtn. (As for eðpiskir, in some Western Wendlandish dialects it follows the same conjugation as hnovskir, thus jag eðpi, tsu eðpisjti, if eðpit...).

A few verbs whose stems end in -j assimilate it to s in the second persons, e.g. paskir "to feed", if pøjt "he apparently fed" but tsu pøsjti, vovr pøsjtir.
Verbs with ø (but not øj) in the stem shift it to y in the second persons and to u in the third plural, e.g. tekir "to weave", if tøht "he apparently wove" but tsu tyksti, vovr tykstir, ifi tukørtn.

Irregular verbs

To be (jas)

Like in most Romance languages, jas (to be) is irregular. The present participle is the same as in other Romance languages; the past participle derives from an analogical form *essūtum. It is the only verb to have a synthetic subjunctive (which is used as auxiliary for the subjunctives of all other verbs).

jas (to be)	Indicative							Subjunctive
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect	Present	Imperfect
jag	so	jarm	fy	hav jøst	kap jas	højm jøst	hav kaft jas	si	firm
tsu	jar	jarar	fysts	hajs jøst	kapir jas	hømyst jøst	hajs kaft jas	sis	furir
if / ifja	jatt	jart	fyt	hejt jøst	kaft jas	hømyt jøst	hejt kaft jas	sit	firt
novr	sørm	jørum	fyrm	højmur jøst	køjmur jas	hømyr jøst	højmur kaft jas	syms	furøjmur
vovr	jæsts	jærits	fysts	hætir jøst	kapætir jas	hømysts jøst	hætir kaft jas	sits	firæjtir
ifi / ifjæ	sints	jarants	førtn	hents jøst	køpunts jas	hørtn jøst	hents kaft jas	sints	furints
Pres. part.	stæjnts
Past part.	jøst

To go (vaðir) and other verbs of motion

Wendlandish, uniquely among Romance languages, has a verb for "to go" - vaðir - which is completely derived from vādere except for the synthetic past (which is that of īre):

vaðir (to go)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	vøð	vaðema	y	hav vøþt	kap vaðir	højm vøþt	hav kaft vaðir
tsu	væðr	vaðemar	ists	hajs vøþt	kapir vaðir	hømyst vøþt	hajs kaft vaðir
if / ifja	væþ	vaðaft	yt	hejt vøþt	kaft vaðir	hømyt vøþt	hejt kaft vaðir
novr	vaðøjmur	vaðømmur	yrm	højmur vøþt	køjmur vaðir	hømyr vøþt	højmur kaft vaðir
vovr	vaðætir	vaðemit	ists	hætir vøþt	kapætir vaðir	hømysts vøþt	hætir kaft vaðir
ifi / ifjæ	vønts	vaðajnts	jer	hents vøþt	køpunts vaðir	hørtn vøþt	hents kaft vaðir
Pres. part.	vaðjants
Past part.	vøþt

More interestingly, Wendlandish has kept a series of motion verbs derived by prefixed forms of Latin īre (plus sufrir derived by an analogically created form *superīre). These may be said to have their own conjugation, and are defined by a non-umlauted stem (used in the infinitive, participles, present 1SG and synthetic past 1SG, 3SG, and 1PL) and an umlauted stem (in all other forms). Here is the conjugation of aðir [aˈðiːɐ] (< adīre) "to come" as example:

aðir (to come)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	aðø	eðima	aðy	hav aðyts	kap aðir	højm aðyts	hav kaft aðir
tsu	eðír	eðimar	eðists	hajs aðyts	kapir aðir	hømyst aðyts	hajs kaft aðir
if / ifja	eðít	eðimat	aðyt	hejt aðyts	kaft aðir	hømyt aðyts	hejt kaft aðir
novr	eðøjmur	eðimmur	aðyrm	højmur aðyts	køjmur aðir	hømyr aðyts	højmur kaft aðir
vovr	eðitir	eðimit	eðists	hætir aðyts	kapætir aðir	hømysts aðyts	hætir kaft aðir
ifi / ifjæ	eðønt	eðints	eðjer	hents aðyts	køpunts aðir	hørtn aðyts	hents kaft aðir
Pres. part.	aðjants
Past part.	aðyts

The other such verbs are:

• amir (< abīre) "to leave; get away from" : jag amø, tsu emír ... amjants, amyts
• ekir (< exīre) "to go out" : jag ekø, tsu ekír ... ekjants, ekyts
• imir (< obīre) "to reach" : jag imø, tsu ømír ... imjants, imyts
• inir (< inīre) "to go in" : jag inø, tsu inír ... injants, inyts
• kir (< coīre) "to join": jag kø, tsu kír ... kujants, kujuts
• reðir (< redīre) "to get/come back" : jag reðø, tsu reðír ... reðjants, reðyts
• sufrir (< *superīre) "to go up" : jag sufrø, tsu syfrír ... sufrjants, sufryts
• sumir (< subīre) "to go down" : jag sumø, tsu symír ... sumjants, sumyts
• trasir (< trānsīre) "to cross" : jag trasø, tsu tresír ... trasjants, trasyts

To have (tenajr)

Like in Ibero-Romance and most of Southern Italo-Dalmatian, the Wendlandish verb for "to have" is the reflex of Latin tenēre, with habēre existing only as an auxiliary for the past and pluperfect. Note that the present forms presume an earlier, Pre-Wendlandish form *tenn-; the 3PL form shows an additional change *tjanints > tjænts.

tenajr (to have)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	tjane	tenema	tyn	hav tytt	kap tenajr	højm tytt	hav kaft tenajr
tsu	tjanir	tenemar	tynsti	hajs tytt	kapir tenajr	hømyst tytt	hajs kaft tenajr
if / ifja	tjanit	tenaft	tynts	hejt tytt	kaft tenajr	hømyt tytt	hejt kaft tenajr
novr	tenøjmur	tenømmur	tynirm	højmur tytt	køjmur tenajr	hømyr tytt	højmur kaft tenajr
vovr	tenætir	tenemit	tynstir	hætir tytt	kapætir tenajr	hømysts tytt	hætir kaft tenajr
ifi / ifjæ	tjænts	tenajnts	tunørtn	hents tytt	køpunts tenajr	hørtn tytt	hents kaft tenajr
(impersonal)	tjanitse	tenaftse	tyntsse	hejtse tytt	kaftse tenajr	hømytse tytt	hejtse kaft tenajr
Pres. part.	tenjants
Past part.	tytt

To carry, bear (fjarir), to give (aðfjarir), to take (defjarir)

Wendlandish's verb for "to carry, to bear" - fjarir - is a direct descendant of Latin suppletive ferre (the infinitive from the analogical form *ferere). The same paradigm is used by the compound verbs aðfjarir (to give, < *adferere) and defjarir (to take, < *dēferere).

fjarir (to carry)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	før	ferema	tyl	hav løt	kap fjarir	højm løt	hav kaft fjarir
tsu	fjars	feremar	tylst	hajs løt	kapir fjarir	hømyst løt	hajs kaft fjarir
if / ifja	fjart	feraft	tylt	hejt løt	kaft fjarir	hømyt løt	hejt kaft fjarir
novr	fjørmur	ferømmur	tylmur	højmur løt	køjmur fjarir	hømyr løt	højmur kaft fjarir
vovr	fjærts	feremit	tylstir	hætir løt	kapætir fjarir	hømysts løt	hætir kaft fjarir
ifi / ifjæ	fjørts	ferajnts	tullants	hents løt	køpunts fjarir	hørtn løt	hents kaft fjarir
(impersonal)	fjartse	feraftse	tyltse	hejtse løt	kaftse fjarir	hømytse løt	hejtse kaft fjarir
Pres. part.	ferjants
Past part.	løt

To understand (idelajsjir)

The verb "to understand", idelajsjir < intelligere, has different stems and various irregularities as the different stress placements led to various instances of syncope. The former synthetic past 1SG ideljæk < intellexī (cf. the modern renarrative forms from intelleg-) has become fossilized and is the typical interjection for "ok, I understand".

idelajsjir (to understand)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	itjøluk	idelajsjma	ideljæj	hav ideljøt	kap idelajsjir	højm ideljøt	hav kaft idelajsjir
tsu	itjælsjir	idelajsjmar	ideljæsjti	hajs ideljøt	kapir idelajsjir	hømyst ideljøt	hajs kaft idelajsjir
if / ifja	itjælsjit	idelsjaft	ideljæjt	hejt ideljøt	kaft idelajsjir	hømyt ideljøt	hejt kaft idelajsjir
novr	idilsjøjmur	idelsjømmur	ideljøjrm	højmur ideljøt	køjmur idelajsjir	hømyr ideljøt	højmur kaft idelajsjir
vovr	idilsjætir	idelajsjmit	ideljæsjtir	hætir ideljøt	kapætir idelajsjir	hømysts ideljøt	hætir kaft idelajsjir
ifi / ifjæ	itjølsjunt	idelsjajnts	ideljørtn	hents ideljøt	køpunts idelajsjir	hørtn ideljøt	hents kaft idelajsjir
(impersonal)	itjælsjitse	idelsjaftse	ideljæjtse	hejtse ideljøt	kaftse idelajsjir	hømytse ideljøt	hejtse kaft idelajsjir
Pres. part.	idilsjants
Past part.	ideljøt

To be able to (pisir)

The conjugation of Latin posse, due to different evolutions, greatly diverged from that of esse; the imperfect has been analogically rebuilt from the infinitive. "To be able to" is pisir (< Pre-Wendl. *possere):

pisir (to be able to)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	pis	pisjama	pøt	hav puts	kap pisir	højm puts	hav kaft pisir
tsu	pur	pisjamar	pytsti	hajs puts	kapir pisir	hømyst puts	hajs kaft pisir
if / ifja	putt	pisjaft	pøtt	hejt puts	kaft pisir	hømyt puts	hejt kaft pisir
novr	pysumur	pisjømmur	pøtyrm	højmur puts	køjmur pisir	hømyr puts	højmur kaft pisir
vovr	putæstir	pisjamit	pytstir	hætir puts	kapætir pisir	hømysts puts	hætir kaft pisir
ifi / ifjæ	pysunts	pisjants	putørtn	hents puts	køpunts pisir	hørtn puts	hents kaft pisir
(impers.)	puttse	pisjaftse	pøttse	hejtse puts	køpunts pisir	hømytse puts	hents kaft pisir
Pres. part.	putjants
Past part.	puts

To want (vjal)

To want - vjal - is another irregular verb, directly continuing Latin velle:

vjal (to want)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	vil	vulema	vøl	hav vylt	kap vjal	højm vylt	hav kaft vjal
tsu	vir	vulemar	vylsti	hajs vylt	kapir vjal	hømyst vylt	hajs kaft vjal
if / ifja	vilt	vulaft	vølt	hejt vylt	kaft vjal	hømyt vylt	hejt kaft vjal
novr	vulmur	vulømmur	vølyrm	højmur vylt	køjmur vjal	hømyr vylt	højmur kaft vjal
vovr	vølts	vulemit	vylstir	hætir vylt	kapætir vjal	hømysts vylt	hætir kaft vjal
ifi / ifjæ	vults	vulajnts	vulørtn	hents vylt	køpunts vjal	hørtn vylt	hents kaft vjal
(impers.)	viltse	vulaftse	vøltse	hejtse vylt	kaftse vjal	hømytse vylt	hejtse kaft vjal
Pres. part.	vuljants
Past part.	vylt

To say (ditsir) and to talk (prilufir)

Two common irregular verbs are ditsir (to say) and prilufir (to talk). Both of them are suppletive: ditsir mostly comes from Latin dīcere, but the present and the past participle are from the originally deponent defective fārī (completed by analogy), and the present participle jants is from aientem, the present participle of āiō. Prilufir mostly comes from forms of prōloquī, through an analogically rebuilt active paradigm *prōloquere, but the participles are the ones of the unprefixed verb — lusjants and lukut from loquentem and locūtum respectively. Its renarrative past has also been rebuilt analogically by a stem luk- (from loquor).

ditsir (to say)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Renarr. Past	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	fir	ditjama	dik	hav føt	kap ditsir	højm føt	hav kaft ditsir
tsu	færs	ditjamar	diksti	hajs føt	kapir ditsir	hømyst føt	hajs kaft ditsir
if / ifja	førd	ditjaft	diht	hejt føt	kaft ditsir	hømyt føt	hejt kaft ditsir
novr	føm	ditjømmur	dikyrm	højmur føt	køjmur ditsir	hømyr føt	højmur kaft ditsir
vovr	fæmin	ditjamit	dikstir	hætir føt	kapætir ditsir	hømysts føt	hætir kaft ditsir
ifi / ifjæ	førnt	ditjants	dikørtn	hents føt	køpunts ditsir	hørtn føt	hents kaft ditsir
(impers.)	førdse	ditjaftse	dihtse	hejtse føt	kaftse ditsir	hømytse føt	hejtse kaft ditsir
Pres. part.	jants
Past part.	føt

prilufir (to talk)	Indicative
	Present	Imperfect	Past	Future	Pluperfect	Fut. Perfect
jag	priluf	prilusjama	lyk	hav lukut	kap prilufir	højm lukut	hav kaft prilufir
tsu	prilør	prilusjamar	lyksti	hajs lukut	kapir prilufir	hømyst lukut	hajs kaft prilufir
if / ifja	priløft	prilusjaft	lyht	hejt lukut	kaft prilufir	hømyt lukut	hejt kaft prilufir
novr	priløfmur	prilusjømmur	lukyrm	højmur lukut	køjmur prilufir	hømyr lukut	højmur kaft prilufir
vovr	priløftir	prilusjamit	lykstir	hætir lukut	kapætir prilufir	hømysts lukut	hætir kaft prilufir
ifi / ifjæ	prilukunts	prilusjants	lukørtn	hents lukut	køpunts prilufir	hørtn lukut	hents kaft prilufir
(impers.)	priløftse	prilusjaftse	lyhtse	hejtse lukut	kaftse prilufir	hømytse lukut	hejtse kaft prilufir
Pres. part.	lusjants
Past part.	lukut

Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections

Wendlandish general prepositions:

• apsj — without (< Lat. absque)
• av — by (< ad)
• fru — to, in order to, for (< pro)
• ið — of (< de)
• ku — with (< cum)
• re — about (< rē)

Spatial and temporal prepositions:

• ek — from (< ex)
• estar — outside (< extrā)
• i (j before vowels) — in (< in)
• intar — between (< inter)
• jant — in front of, before (< *in ante)
• kyrg — around (< circum)
• obav — opposite (< *ob ad)
• pertants — through (< *per trāns)
• pist — behind, after (< post)
• suf — on, over (< super)
• sov — under (< sub)
• ultar — beyond (< ultrā)
• yst — near, close to (< iuxtā)
• øðusj — until (< adusque)
• øft — at (< apud)

Conjunctions and interjections:

• et — and (< et)
• naj — not; no (< nē)
• nisj ... nisj — neither ... nor (< neque ... neque)
• si — if (< sī)
• sið — but (< sed)
• syt — yes (< sīcut)
• tak — yes (more colloquial) (< Polish tak)
• tam — however (< tamen)
• ylik — instead (< in locō)
• ørg — so, thus (< ergō)
• øt — or (< aut)
• øt ... øt — either ... or (< aut ... aut)

Vocabulary

Despite being a Romance language, Wendlandish has a very high number of words of non-Latin origin, particularly from Old Norse and Proto-Slavic as the most ancient borrowings, then in the Middle Ages particularly from Middle Low German (and some words of Baltic origin), then Polish, and most recently Danish, High German, and up until the present day Russian, which was the prestige language in Soviet times and is still particularly high regarded and spoken in the present-day Wendlands. Examples of these borrowings are:

• from Old Norse: kirkja (church (coexists with ikjesj from Latin ecclēsia)), morgin (breakfast, from morginn "morning"), dravm (dream, < draumr), oran (eagle, < ǫrn), veg (street, < vegr), faur (beautiful, < fag(u)r — coexists with lymb, cognate of e.g. Portuguese lindo), ejra (ear, < eyra), and notably Vinnurlont (< Vindurlǫnd) and the Old Norse genitive Vinnurlandana (< Vindurlandana) which is used as a learned genitive in modern Wendlandish. Vinnurlænsk derives from the same root with an added Latin suffix, thus Pre-Wendlandish *Vindurlandīsco.
• from Proto-Slavic: jalin (deer, < *elenь), ljað (winter, < *ledъ "ice"), lysøs (salmon, < *lososь), tjað (baby, < *čędo), sjer (gray, < *śěrь), muld (new, < *moldъ "young"), let (year, < *lěto), prætjel (friend, < *prijàteljь), also a few basic verbs like misjlær (to think, < *mysliti), rjaser (to cut, < *rězati), and gljandær (to look, < *ględati).
• from Middle Low German: fangnits (prison, < vangnisse), gafil (fork, < gaffel), førke (girl,< vroiken), arvejð (work, < arbeide (Latin labor > lamir came to mean "task", while the learned borrowing labor means "oeuvre", "work of art")), forkast (lunch, < vrōkost);
• from Polish the most notable ones are many colour names, like tjervon (red, < czerwony), sjilon (yellow, < zielony), and probably lilan "purple" from liliowy. Colour names in Wendlandish show many borrowings, like the probably Baltic terms ruds (brown) and gælten (yellow).

It is worth noting that most Polish loans date before the changes in pronunciation of Pol. ó and ł and as such they usually have the values /ɔ/ (or /oː/) and /l/ in Wendlandish, e.g. in gosj /ɣoːʃ/ "nail" < gwóźdź and in mildo /ˈmiːldo/ "soap" < mydło. Some terms were however adopted later and therefore have the "newer" values (e.g. zakvat /ˈzaːkʋat/ "factory" < zakład). The city of Łódź is known as Lotj /ˈloːtʃ/ in Wendlandish.
German words were often used before 1945, with Vænfjørðin having a sizeable German-speaking community; after the end of WW2, however, the Soviet government expelled them to East Germany and in the following years many of them were replaced with either native Wendlandish or Russian equivalents. Notable examples are "court" geriht → sut; "market" mart → rinak; "car" vagen → lada/masjina (pre-1990)/vosjeni; "train" tsuk → pojst; the honorifics hær and frav → tavarisj (still the most common today).

Russian influence and Savjetskalgia

File:WendlandishSSR-Flag.png

Soviet-era flag of the Wendlandish SSR

Russian influence in Wendlandish is mostly concentrated in the last century, but there's no doubt that it has tremendously impacted the language, not only in Soviet times but, possibly even more deeply, after the Soviet Union broke up. The early post-Soviet years were marked by a huge decline in the Wendlands and people immediately developed a strong sense of nostalgia for the Golden Age of the Wendlands - the days of the Soviet Union, when the Wendlands were a strategically important and cosmopolite part of the country due to it being its westernmost extent. This sense of nostalgia — called savjetskalgia as a portmanteau of savjetski (Soviet) and nostalgia — is still enormously visible in the prestige that the Russian language, emblem of the Soviet era, has in the Wendlands, probably even more than in Russia itself. Russian loans are entering Wendlandish en masse, often with a more "official" meaning when compared to the native Wendlandish term, and Russian is the preferred language of the Academy of the Wendlandish language in order to coin terms, to the extent that Wendlandish academics have recently coined terms from Russian roots that do not even exist in Russian, like vosjeni "car" (< воженный "driven"; though colloquial Wendlandish uses lada from the car brand) or hadifon for "mobile phone" (from ходить "to walk" and Wend./international telefon). Example of Russian loans into Wendlandish are:

• political and learned terms, often Soviet-era borrowings: nizavisjmasts (independence, < независимость), plosjats (a large square, mainly for parades, especially May 9 celebrations < площадь), savjet (parliament; Soviet < совет);
• things used as honorifics when specifically talking about Communism or Soviet concepts: pavjeda (victory, < победа — c.f. May 9 dæj ið pavjedala. Note that native vihtøra was still used in this sense when the city of Tjervona Vihtørala was founded); krasni (red, < красный), pravitjelstva (government (only the Soviet and the Wendlandish ones, but colloquially often used for all), < правительство).
• many proper names, not just Russian ones like Vætjislaf (Вячеслав), Jyri (Юрий), or Lydmila (Людмила) but also words that have become used as names, like Giroj (герой, "hero"), as far as the "most uniquely Wendlandish name of all", namely Kamoj, a portmanteau of коммунистический герой "Communist hero".
• various words for things that were not part of everyday Wendlandish life before Soviet times - e.g. plitá (gas/electric stove), haladilnik (fridge), marazilnik (freezer), tilivizar (television), rubil (ruble), kapjek (kopek), hrusjovka (khruščëvka);
• post-Soviet coinages from Russian roots or hybrid Russian-Wendlandish ones, like the vosjeni and hadifon mentioned previously; viliksjetj (internet, from великая сеть "great net"), patpojst (subway < под (under) and поезд (train)), or elekpisjmó (e-mail, from электронное письмо (electronic letter)).

Days, months, seasons

The days of the week in Wendlandish uniquely show a full retention of the pagan Latin names, due to the late spread of Christianity to the Wendlands. They are also less regular than in other Romance languages because the latter diem part (> dæj, also the normal word for "day") was only retained in the names for Thursday and Sunday - where the named part had become too worn-down - and in the word for Tuesday, possibly in order to avoid a near homonymy with the word for March. The initial /d/ of diem can also still be seen as the last consonant in the words for Monday and Friday.
Saturday is a peculiar development, as instead of expected Sāturni diem, Wendlandish Vulgar Latin developed an adjectival form *satiūrnum (probably influenced by diurnum) which became the current word. Pronunciations are given for irregularly-pronounced ones:

Day	Name	Shortening	Pronunciation
Monday	luneð	lun
Tuesday	mærtsdæj	mær	[ˈmæːtsdɛɪ̯]
Wednesday	mjørkyr	mjø
Thursday	jøvsdæj	jøv	[ˈjøːzdɛɪ̯]
Friday	vjanirst	vja	[ˈʋjaːnest]
Saturday	stjurn	stj
Sunday	sølsdæj	søl	[ˈsølzdɛɪ̯]

Month names are less divergent, but the words for June and July show a remodelling based on the Latin forms instead of expected *yny, *yly. There is an alternative Russian borrowing aktjabir for October, which is however only used in relation to Soviet history and in place names.

Month	Name	Shortening
January	jønær	jøn
February	fømrær	føm
March	mærsj	mær
April	fril	fri
May	møj	møj
June	jynj	jyn
July	jylj	jyl
August	øgavtt	øga
September	sjiftjamur	sji
October	ihtomur	iht
November	nivjamur	niv
December	ditjamur	dit

Seasons' names are derived from Latin, except for winter which is a Slavic borrowing (from "ice"). Their adjectives are formed with -ejtyk (< Lat. -āticum).

Season	Name	Adjective
Spring	vjar	vjarejtyk
Summer	jastát	jastejtyk
Autumn	avtomm	avtomejtyk
Winter	ljað	ljadejtyk

Countries and demonyms

Note that every country ending in -lond is morphologically plural.

Country		Capital	Adjective/Demonym
the Wendlands	Vinnurlond	Vænfjørðin	vinnurlænsk
Poland	Sløvjænlond	Varsjuv	sløvjænsk
Germany	Þysklond	Berlin	þyskrisk
Denmark	Danmork	Kaupmanhøjfn	dænsk
Sweden	Sværikur	Stokholmur	svæjsk
Norway	Norgur	Oslo	nørgisk
Iceland	Islond	Rejkarvi	isluntsk
Finland	Finlond	Helsenfors	finsk
Italy	Itæla	Rim	itælsk
Soviet Union	Savjetska ynin Ynin ið Repuvlikallar Sosjalistsiks Savjetsks (YRSS)	Maskvá	savjetsk
Russia	Rusj		rusjisk
Belarus	Hvitrusj (or Bjelarusj)	Minsk	hvitrusjisk
Ukraine	Ukrajina	Kijef	ukrajinsk
Moldova	Maldavija	Kisjinjof	maldavisk
Georgia	Gruzija	Tiflís	gruzinsk
Azerbaijan	Azirbaitjan	Bakú	azirbaitjansk
Armenia	Armenija	Jerevan	armjansk
Kazakhstan	Kazagstan	Astana	kazagsk
Kyrgyzstan	Kirgizija	Frunze(or Bisjkek)	kirgisk
Uzbekistan	Uzbekistan	Tasjkent	uzbekisk
Tajikistan	Tatjikistan	Dusjambe	tatjikisk
Turkmenistan	Turkmenistan	Asjgabat	turkmensk
Lithuania	Ljetlond	Vilnjus	ljetsk
Latvia	Latlond	Riga	latsk
Estonia	Estlond	Rajval	estisk

Example texts

The Lord's Prayer

Part nitte, hjeð jatt i sjølir,

svønt sit Tsur nom,

venjants sit Tso kongartyðn,

fahta sit Tso vultjæt,

tælsj i sjølir et tælsj suf tajrla.

Da høð að nøym nittra pan køtjana

et ermit að nøym nøtti divter

tælsj tølmi novr ifov ermitøymur að nøtti divtirer

et naj iduk novr i tetæsjla

sið liver novr av møler.

Tso jatt kongartyðnlа, et pitintsla, et glørala, j int søkler ið søkler.

Amen.

Wendlandish Cyrillic:

Парт нитте, йеҙ ятт и шөлир,

свөнт сит Цур ном,

венянц сит Цо конгартүҙн,

фахта сит Цо вулчѣт,

тѣлш и шөлир ет тѣлш суф тайрла.

Да хөҙ аҙ нөүм ниттра пан көчана

ет ермит аҙ нөүм нөтти дивтер

тѣлш төлми новр ифов ермитөүмур аҙ нөтти дивтирер.

ет най идук новр и тетѣшла

сиҙ ливер новр ав мөлер.

Цо ятт конгартүҙнла, ет питинцла, ет глөрала, й инт сөклер иҙ сөклер.

Амен.

IPA:

[ˈpaɐt ˈnite jeð ˈjat i ˈʃøːliɐ̯

ˈsvønt‿sit ˈtsuːɐ̯ ˈnoːm

veˈnjants‿sit ˈtsoː ˌkɔŋːaɐ̯ˈtʏð(ə)n

ˈfahta sit ˈtsoː vulˈtʃæːt

ˈtælʃ i ˈʃøːliɐ̯ e ˈtælʃ‿ʃuf ˈtaɪ̯ɐ̯la

ˈda ˈhøːð a‿ˈnøʏ̯m ˈnitra ˈpaːn køˈtʃaːna

et‿eɐ̯ˈmiːt a‿ˈnøʏ̯m ˈnøti ˈdiʊ̯teɐ̯

ˈtælʃ ˈtølmi ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ ˈifoʊ̯ eɐ̯miˈtøʏ̯mʊɐ̯ a‿ˈnøti diʊ̯ˈtiːreɐ̯

e ˈnaɪ̯ iˈduːk ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ i teˈtæʃla

sið ˈliːʋeɐ̯ ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ aʊ̯ ˈmøːleɐ̯

ˈtsoː ˈjat ˌkɔŋːaɐ̯ˈtʏðla e‿piˈtintsla e‿ˈɣløːrala, j‿int‿ˈsøkleɐ̯ i‿ˈsøkleɐ̯

ˈaːmen]

UDHR Article 1

Intar humanylir nasjunts i lintaðla et ifalir i dinjaðla et rektylir. Ifi sints dutats ku ratjinla et kisjentjala, et tjænts að æsjir kvøltur j una dusja ið fratrinæt.

Wendlandish Cyrillic:

Интар хуманүлир нашунц и линтаҙла ет ифалир и диняҙла ет ректүлир. Ифи синц дутац ку рачинла ет кишенчала, ет чѣнц аҙ ѣшир квөлтур й уна душа иҙ фратринѣт.

IPA:

[ˈintaɐ̯ ɦuˈmaːnʏlɪɐ̯ ˈnaːʃunt͡s i‿linˈtaðla et‿iˈfaːliɐ̯ i‿diˈnjaːðla e ˈre̞ktʏlɪɐ̯] [ˈiːfɪ ˈsint͡s duˈtaːt͡s ku‿raˈt͡ʃinla e kiˈʃent͡ʃala e ˈtʃænt͡s að‿ˈæːʃiɐ̯ ˈkvøltʉɐ̯ j‿una ˈduːɕa if‿ˈfratrɪnæt]