Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions
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* '''4s''': nouns ending in ''-oe'' | * '''4s''': nouns ending in ''-oe'' | ||
'''M-nouns (mamą lā halenī)''': | '''M-nouns (mamą lā halenī)''': | ||
* '''1m''': nouns ending in ''-am'', ''-em'', ''-ām'', ''- | * '''1m''': nouns ending in ''-am'', ''-em'', ''-ām'', ''-ēm'' (or ''-n'') | ||
* '''2m''': nouns ending in ''-um'' or ''-ūm'' (or ''-n'') | * '''2m''': nouns ending in ''-um'' or ''-ūm'' (or ''-n'') | ||
* '''3m''': nouns ending in ''-im'' or ''-īm'' (or ''-n'') | * '''3m''': nouns ending in ''-im'' or ''-īm'' (or ''-n'') | ||
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'''H-nouns (hahą lā halenī)''': | '''H-nouns (hahą lā halenī)''': | ||
* '''1h''': nouns ending in ''-a'', ''-ah'', ''-ā'', or ''-āh'' | * '''1h''': nouns ending in ''-a'', ''-ah'', ''-ā'', or ''-āh'' | ||
* '''2h''': nouns ending in ''- | * '''2h''': nouns ending in ''-ē'' or ''-eh'' (plus some diminutives ending in ''-ēh'') | ||
* '''3h''': nouns ending in ''-uh'' or ''-ūh'', and a few words of Dabuke origin in ''-u'' (mostly only used regionally in the West) | * '''3h''': nouns ending in ''-uh'' or ''-ūh'', and a few words of Dabuke origin in ''-u'' (mostly only used regionally in the West) | ||
* '''4h''': nouns ending in ''-ih'' or ''-īh'' (plus a few exceptional ones in ''-i'') | * '''4h''': nouns ending in ''-ih'' or ''-īh'' (plus a few exceptional ones in ''-i'') | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Essive | ! Essive | ||
| prātą || prātigin || | | prātą || prātigin || prātēm || kældą || kældugin || kældavēm || kumę || kumigin || kumayēm || halen || haloegin || haloem | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Essive | ! Essive | ||
| yujamą || yujamiona || | | yujamą || yujamiona || yujamēm || tūlumą || tūlumiona || tūlumēm || jāyimą || jāyimiona || jāyimēm || lunąis || lunāyona || lunǣm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Note that all nouns with '''-n''' have their direct and vocative plural forms ''identical'' to the singular ones - all other inflections (including the dual) are the same as the other nouns. Thus e.g. '''samin''' may be either ''child'' or ''children'', and it is usually the verb that marks the number - compare ''samin | Note that all nouns with '''-n''' have their direct and vocative plural forms ''identical'' to the singular ones - all other inflections (including the dual) are the same as the other nouns. Thus e.g. '''samin''' may be either ''child'' or ''children'', and it is usually the verb that marks the number - compare ''samin mālchē'' "the kid runs" and ''samin mālchīran'' "the kids run". They are de facto undistinguishable out of context in forms where singular and plural have the same verb form, e.g. in the perfect - ''samin amālcha'' can mean either "the kid has run" or "the kids have run" depending on context.<br/>These unmarked plurals are regular - note that ''hulin'' (woman) has both a regular plural (''hulin''), used in a wider scope (e.g. ''chlǣvānumi hulin'' "Chlouvānem women") and an irregular plural (''hilāni'') used in other contexts (e.g. ''nanā hilāni'' "those women there"). | ||
''-en'' nouns decline following the 1m pattern (with unmarked plural). | ''-en'' nouns decline following the 1m pattern (with unmarked plural). | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Direct | ! Direct | ||
| '''māra''' <small>''"mango"''</small> || mārion || mārai || '''javileh''' <small>''"apple"''</small> || javilion || javiliai || '''camūh''' <small>''"group"''</small> || camūyon || camūvai || '''ghārṭih''' <small>''"arrow"''</small> || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || '''lila''' <small>''"person"''</small> || lilion || | | '''māra''' <small>''"mango"''</small> || mārion || mārai || '''javileh''' <small>''"apple"''</small> || javilion || javiliai || '''camūh''' <small>''"group"''</small> || camūyon || camūvai || '''ghārṭih''' <small>''"arrow"''</small> || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || '''lila''' <small>''"person"''</small> || lilion || leliē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
| māra || mārion || mārai || javili || javilion || javiliai || camū || camūyon || camūvai || ghārṭī || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || lila || lilion || | | māra || mārion || mārai || javili || javilion || javiliai || camū || camūyon || camūvai || ghārṭī || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || lila || lilion || leliē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| māru || mārūri || mārānu || javilu || javiliūri || | | māru || mārūri || mārānu || javilu || javiliūri || javilēnu || camūvau || camūyūri || camǣnu || ghārṭiyu || ghārṭiyūri || ghārṭeinu || lilu || lilūri || leliu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ergative | ! Ergative | ||
| mārei || mārą || mārān || javilei || javilią || | | mārei || mārą || mārān || javilei || javilią || javilēn || camūvei || camūvą || camǣn || ghārṭiyi || ghārṭiyą || ghārṭein || lilei || lilą || leliei | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Exessive | ! Exessive | ||
| mārat || mārābhan || mārāman || javilet || | | mārat || mārābhan || mārāman || javilet || javilēbhan || javilēman || camūt || camūbhan || camūman || ghārṭit || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīman || lilat || lilābhan || leliat | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Essive | ! Essive | ||
| māręs || māriona || | | māręs || māriona || mārēm || javilęs || javiliona || javilēm || camųs || camūyona || camūvēm || ghārṭįs || ghārṭiyona || ghārṭīvēm || liląs || liliona || lailąs | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| mārų || mārābhan || mārenīs || javilių || | | mārų || mārābhan || mārenīs || javilių || javilēbhan || javilenīs || camųu || camūbhan || camūnīs || ghārṭių || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīnīs || lilų || lilābhan || lelių | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| mārini || mārābhan || mārenīka || javileni || | | mārini || mārābhan || mārenīka || javileni || javilēbhan || javilenīka || camvini || camūbhan || camūnīka || ghārṭīni || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīnīka || lilini || lilābhan || lelini | ||
|} | |} | ||
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* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs); | * '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs); | ||
* '''instrumental-trigger''' (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful). | * '''instrumental-trigger''' (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful). | ||
Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' ('' | Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailьcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>. | ||
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' ('' | Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect. | ||
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only five moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only five moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | ||
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Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to eleven verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs: | Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to eleven verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs: | ||
# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, | # The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męliē'', past ''męliek'', perfect ''emęlia''. | ||
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''mišake'' "to see": '' | # Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''mišake'' "to see": ''mešē — mišek — imiša''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltek, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulek — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'') | ||
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": '' | # Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munek — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kirake'' "to love": ''kairē — kirek — ikira''. | ||
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": '' | # Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldek — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''). | ||
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": '' | # Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''. | ||
# These verbs have '''ei''' in the present, '''a''' in the past, and '''a+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''heimake'' "to blow, to play (wind instruments)" '' | # These verbs have '''ei''' in the present, '''a''' in the past, and '''a+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''heimake'' "to blow, to play (wind instruments)" ''heimē — hamek — ahima''. | ||
# Verbs with '''e''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''i+ i''' in the perfect (and infinitive!); e.g. ''miṃsake'' "to risk" '' | # Verbs with '''e''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''i+ i''' in the perfect (and infinitive!); e.g. ''miṃsake'' "to risk" ''meṃsē — myaṃsek — imiṃsa''. | ||
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''o''' in the past, and '''e+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''næljake'' "to turn, to screw": '' | # Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''o''' in the past, and '''e+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''næljake'' "to turn, to screw": ''næljē — noljek — enilja''. | ||
# Verbs with '''o''' in the present, '''ei''' in the past, and '''a+ ā''' in the perfect; e.g. ''volkake'' "to stab, to sting (esp. insects), to hit with something pointy": '' | # Verbs with '''o''' in the present, '''ei''' in the past, and '''a+ ā''' in the perfect; e.g. ''volkake'' "to stab, to sting (esp. insects), to hit with something pointy": ''volkē — veilkek — avālka''. | ||
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''e+ ī''' in the perfect; e.g. ''kællake'' "to sew": '' | # Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''e+ ī''' in the perfect; e.g. ''kællake'' "to sew": ''kællē — kyallek — ekīlla''. | ||
# Also called '''-ah verbs''', these verbs actually never modify their root vowel, but have different present endings. ''hæṃdike'' "to dream", ''jānake'' "to feel", and ''lilke'' "to live" are the most common verbs of this class. | # Also called '''-ah verbs''', these verbs actually never modify their root vowel, but have different present endings. ''hæṃdike'' "to dream", ''jānake'' "to feel", and ''lilke'' "to live" are the most common verbs of this class. | ||
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====Vocalic stems==== | ====Vocalic stems==== | ||
Vocalic stems are those whose stems end in a vowel; most of them are class 1 (without any vowel change), but some are class 2 (ablauting), more rarely of other classes. They are anyway somewhat rare in Chlouvānem, but a few common verbs have vocalic stems. These stems often do not behave as in normal vowel saṃdhi when vocalic terminations are added: | Vocalic stems are those whose stems end in a vowel; most of them are class 1 (without any vowel change), but some are class 2 (ablauting), more rarely of other classes. They are anyway somewhat rare in Chlouvānem, but a few common verbs have vocalic stems. These stems often do not behave as in normal vowel saṃdhi when vocalic terminations are added: | ||
* The diphthongs '''ai, ei, au''', and their breathy-voiced versions mute the second element in a semivowel; in '''ai''' and '''au''' the vowel is naturally lengthened to '''ā''' - e.g. ''gṇyauke'' "to give birth", pres. exterior ''gṇyāvu, gṇyāvi, | * The diphthongs '''ai, ei, au''', and their breathy-voiced versions mute the second element in a semivowel; in '''ai''' and '''au''' the vowel is naturally lengthened to '''ā''' - e.g. ''gṇyauke'' "to give birth", pres. exterior ''gṇyāvu, gṇyāvi, gṇyāvē''...; past exterior ''gṇyāvau, gṇyāvei, gṇyauk''... | ||
* The short vowels '''i, u, ṛ''' and long '''ṝ''' change into their corresponding semivowels if it forms an accepted cluster - e.g. ''vike'' "to rest" (ablauting stem ''ve-'' in the present), past exterior ''vyau, vyei, vik''... | * The short vowels '''i, u, ṛ''' and long '''ṝ''' change into their corresponding semivowels if it forms an accepted cluster - e.g. ''vike'' "to rest" (ablauting stem ''ve-'' in the present), past exterior ''vyau, vyei, vik''... | ||
* '''æ''' and '''ǣ''' become '''ev''' and '''oe''' becomes '''en''' - e.g. ''gæke'' "to stretch", pres. exterior ''gevu, gevi, | * '''æ''' and '''ǣ''' become '''ev''' and '''oe''' becomes '''en''' - e.g. ''gæke'' "to stretch", pres. exterior ''gevu, gevi, gevē''...; past exterior ''gevau, gevei, gæk''... | ||
Other vowels add different epenthetic consonants depending on their quality: | Other vowels add different epenthetic consonants depending on their quality: | ||
* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. '' | * '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''liēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''liēnu, liēni, liēnē''...; past exterior ''liēnau, liēnei, liēk''. | ||
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or ''' | * All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''... | ||
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, | * Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē<ref>Written ''švęe'' in some older texts.</ref>''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''... | ||
In four basic verbs, ''-ьā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | In four basic verbs, ''-ьā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | ||
* ''-tiāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatiāke'') — ''- | * ''-tiāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatiāke'') — ''-timē, -tiāk, -(ɂ)atiā'' | ||
* ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — '' | * ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā'' | ||
* ''miāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — '' | * ''miāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, miāk, amiā'' | ||
* ''skliāke'' (to store, spare) — '' | * ''skliāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, skliāk, askliā'' | ||
===The infinitive=== | ===The infinitive=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| nāmv''' | | nāmv'''ē''' || nāmv'''ire''' || gṇyāv'''ē''' || gṇyāv'''ire''' || meš'''ē''' || meš'''ire''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęre''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ||
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===Past Indicative=== | ===Past Indicative=== | ||
In the past indicative, -ah verbs are not distinguished from others. Frequentative verbs in ''-ve(y)-'' are completely regular, but the suffix becomes ''-vi(y)-'', e.g. ''mīmīšviyek'' "it was frequently seen" vs. present '' | In the past indicative, -ah verbs are not distinguished from others. Frequentative verbs in ''-ve(y)-'' are completely regular, but the suffix becomes ''-vi(y)-'', e.g. ''mīmīšviyek'' "it was frequently seen" vs. present ''mīmīšveyē'' "it is frequently seen".<br/> | ||
Ablauting verbs always have their base grade, except for inverse ablaut roots which use the reduced vowel. | Ablauting verbs always have their base grade, except for inverse ablaut roots which use the reduced vowel. | ||
Exterior forms: | Exterior forms: | ||
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Some verbs have an irregular 3SG exterior past form due to ''-k'' attaching directly to the consonant. This does not happen in all athematic verbs, but only in the following ones: | Some verbs have an irregular 3SG exterior past form due to ''-k'' attaching directly to the consonant. This does not happen in all athematic verbs, but only in the following ones: | ||
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands" and ''sturake'' "to fall" which have ''pāṭ'' and ''stāṭ'' respectively. | * ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands" and ''sturake'' "to fall" which have ''pāṭ'' and ''stāṭ'' respectively. | ||
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage<ref>For the latter two meanings, the regular athematic verb ''halimaiške'' ( | * ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage<ref>For the latter two meanings, the regular athematic verb ''halimaiške'' (halimaišē, halimaišek, ehalimaiše) is more commonly used.</ref>" (''lak''), ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce" (''ssak''), ''sprutake'' "to join, link" (''sprak'') | ||
* ''leilge'' "to concern, to be on the topic of" (''lål'') | * ''leilge'' "to concern, to be on the topic of" (''lål'') | ||
* ''peithake'' "to go on foot (multidirectional)" (''pat'') | * ''peithake'' "to go on foot (multidirectional)" (''pat'') | ||
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Also note that, in order to state the future of "to be" and "to have", the '''present''' forms of ''ndǣke'' (to become) and ''milke'' (to get, take) respectively are more commonly used: | Also note that, in order to state the future of "to be" and "to have", the '''present''' forms of ''ndǣke'' (to become) and ''milke'' (to get, take) respectively are more commonly used: | ||
: ''hulābdān | : ''hulābdān ndevē'' "it is becoming good" = "it will be good" = exactly the same meaning as ''hulābdān jalṣya''. | ||
: ''nanau naviṣyu milkute'' "I am taking that book" = "I will have that book" = exactly the same as ''naviṣya liliā jalṣya'' or similar sentences. | : ''nanau naviṣyu milkute'' "I am taking that book" = "I will have that book" = exactly the same as ''naviṣya liliā jalṣya'' or similar sentences. | ||
=== Future intentional indicative === | === Future intentional indicative === | ||
The future intentional indicative is a verbal form used for stating mainly intentional, perfective in meaning, future events. It may be translated most commonly as "to be going to", "to plan to", or also as "to want to"; it also has the rather idiomatic meaning of an expectation. In any case, its perfective meaning means that habitual or continuous future events, even if planned, are either expressed with the general future or expressed with the future intentional of a frequentative verb. Some examples of its use are: | The future intentional indicative is a verbal form used for stating mainly intentional, perfective in meaning, future events. It may be translated most commonly as "to be going to", "to plan to", or also as "to want to"; it also has the rather idiomatic meaning of an expectation. In any case, its perfective meaning means that habitual or continuous future events, even if planned, are either expressed with the general future or expressed with the future intentional of a frequentative verb. Some examples of its use are: | ||
: ''menire | : ''menire prājaṃnē lalti lenta nakṣuṃkitom elīsāltam'' "tomorrow evening I'll go to the ''nakṣuṃkita''<ref>A small bar focused on music performances.</ref> with my friend". | ||
: ''galiākinų tammi tetacuṃlāṇų natte tailīsālta'' "the train from Galiākina is expected to arrive in one tetacuṃlāṇa (=about 5½ minutes)." | : ''galiākinų tammi tetacuṃlāṇų natte tailīsālta'' "the train from Galiākina is expected to arrive in one tetacuṃlāṇa (=about 5½ minutes)." | ||
: ''liliā maiha murkire helajyū ilakāltate : lili no ūnikire tū ilakāltaṃte'' "my daughter is going to take the black ''helajyā''<ref>A kind of blouse, usually worn with a Chlouvānem sarī (''jånirāh'').</ref>, while I'm going to take the red one." | : ''liliā maiha murkire helajyū ilakāltate : lili no ūnikire tū ilakāltaṃte'' "my daughter is going to take the black ''helajyā''<ref>A kind of blouse, usually worn with a Chlouvānem sarī (''jånirāh'').</ref>, while I'm going to take the red one." | ||
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=== Voice marking === | === Voice marking === | ||
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are: | Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are: | ||
* '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''- | * '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''-ē-te'' (in most 3sg verbs) becomes ''-egde'' (as ''-ē'' derives from historical *-eg); | ||
* '''-kæ''' for benefactive-trigger voice; | * '''-kæ''' for benefactive-trigger voice; | ||
* '''-tū''' ('''-tur''' non-finally) for antibenefactive-trigger voice; | * '''-tū''' ('''-tur''' non-finally) for antibenefactive-trigger voice; | ||
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* '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice; | * '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice; | ||
* '''-ūsi''' for dative-trigger voice. | * '''-ūsi''' for dative-trigger voice. | ||
Examples of voice marking are '' | Examples of voice marking are ''męliē'' (he/she/it is given) — ''męliegde'' (he/she/it gives) (and ''męliu'' (I am given) → ''męliute'' "I give") — ''męliēkæ'' (something is given for him/her/it) — ''męliētū'' (something is given against him/her/it) — ''męliērā'' (something is given in him/her/it) — ''męliēmǣ'' (something is given with him/her/it) — ''męliegūsi'' (something is given to him/her/it). | ||
In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like '' | In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlē'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yāteyųlē'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlē'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlē'', verb ''tadyųlake''). | ||
===The subjunctive mood=== | ===The subjunctive mood=== | ||
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Example (''nāmvake'' “to crush, press”): | Example (''nāmvake'' “to crush, press”): | ||
* Imperfective: exterior ''nāmveinu'', ''nāmveini'', '' | * Imperfective: exterior ''nāmveinu'', ''nāmveini'', ''nāmveinē'', … interior ''nāmveiniru'', …; causative ext. ''nāmveinildeyam'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveinildṛyam'', … | ||
* Perfective: ext. ''nāmveinau'', ''nāmveinei'', ''nāmveinek'', … int. ''nāmveinirau'', …; caus. ext. ''nāmveinildau'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveinildrau'', … | * Perfective: ext. ''nāmveinau'', ''nāmveinei'', ''nāmveinek'', … int. ''nāmveinirau'', …; caus. ext. ''nāmveinildau'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveinildrau'', … | ||
* Propositive: ext. pat. ''nāmveinikṣam'', ''nāmveinos'', ''nāmveinotīs'', … ext. ag. ''nāmveiniasti'', ...; int. ''nāmveinirṣṭi'', …; caus. ext. pat. ''nāmveiniljam'', …; caus. ext. ag. ''nāmveinildasti'', ...; caus. int. ''nāmveinildṛṣṭi'', ... | * Propositive: ext. pat. ''nāmveinikṣam'', ''nāmveinos'', ''nāmveinotīs'', … ext. ag. ''nāmveiniasti'', ...; int. ''nāmveinirṣṭi'', …; caus. ext. pat. ''nāmveiniljam'', …; caus. ext. ag. ''nāmveinildasti'', ...; caus. int. ''nāmveinildṛṣṭi'', ... | ||
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A few verbs have completely irregular stems: |
A few verbs have completely irregular stems: | ||
* ''gyake'' “to be”: ''muñj-'' | * ''gyake'' “to be”: ''muñj-'' | ||
* ''lilke'' “to live”: '' | * ''lilke'' “to live”: ''lēlikṣ-'' | ||
* ''męlike'' “to give”: ''mimęñ-
'' | * ''męlike'' “to give”: ''mimęñ-
'' | ||
* ''milke'' “to take”: ''mūṃchl-''. | * ''milke'' “to take”: ''mūṃchl-''. | ||
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A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''. | A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''. | ||
The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte | The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte šergē'' - while the "can" sense may be rephrased with ''novake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte novē'' - or (less commonly) with the infinitive - e.g. ''dṛke novute''. | ||
===The permissive=== | ===The permissive=== | ||
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The added consequential morphemes are just ''-ai(r)-'' and ''-tsu(k)-'' respectively. | The added consequential morphemes are just ''-ai(r)-'' and ''-tsu(k)-'' respectively. | ||
Examples: ''pūnaneru'' → '' | Examples: ''pūnaneru'' → ''pūnanerukairē'' (given that, apparently, (s)he worked, ...); ''pūnanuyo'' → ''pūnanuyoketsukē'' (even if, apparently, (s)he worked, but probably didn't, ...). | ||
===Impersonal verbs=== | ===Impersonal verbs=== | ||
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These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; ''gårḍake'' usually only has a subjunctive. Examples: | These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; ''gårḍake'' usually only has a subjunctive. Examples: | ||
: ''loh tamiāt maivat hælьtek'' “what (s)he said <small>(literally: his/her word)</small> moved me.” | : ''loh tamiāt maivat hælьtek'' “what (s)he said <small>(literally: his/her word)</small> moved me.” | ||
: ''nīdrevitam loh | : ''nīdrevitam loh ñælftē'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.” | ||
: ''sęi tū priūsimęliatiam gårḍek'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) . | : ''sęi tū priūsimęliatiam gårḍek'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) . | ||
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** Also has the irregular optative stem ''fleina-'' (instead of expected *fluneina-). | ** Also has the irregular optative stem ''fleina-'' (instead of expected *fluneina-). | ||
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | * ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, | ** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdia...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junia. | ** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junia. | ||
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — '' | * ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only. The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only. The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī'' | * ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī'' | ||
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ||
** Also has the irregular stem '' | ** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junia. | ||
=====Miscellaneous irregularities===== | =====Miscellaneous irregularities===== | ||
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The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at). The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs. | The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at). The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs. | ||
''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, | ''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerayou, ñoeradia''...). | ||
''męlike'' (to give) has the irregular desiderative stem ''mimęñ-'' as well as the irregular optative ''męliǣna-''. | ''męlike'' (to give) has the irregular desiderative stem ''mimęñ-'' as well as the irregular optative ''męliǣna-''. | ||
Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels: | Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels: | ||
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": '' | * ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura'' | ||
* ''sturake'' "to fall": '' | * ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura'' | ||
Three verbs have ''(a+) -ut'' in the infinitive and perfect, ''-at'' in the past, and ''att'' in the present: | Three verbs have ''(a+) -ut'' in the infinitive and perfect, ''-at'' in the past, and ''att'' in the present: | ||
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage": '' | * ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage": ''lattē — (latau) lak — aluta'' | ||
* ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce": '' | * ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce": ''ssattē — (ssatau) ssak — assuta'' | ||
* ''sprutake'' "to join, link": '' | * ''sprutake'' "to join, link": ''sprattē — (spratau) sprak — aspruta'' | ||
Two verbs have '''(a+) -agv'' but ''-avu-'' in the past: | Two verbs have '''(a+) -agv'' but ''-avu-'' in the past: | ||
* ''lagvake'' "to assume": '' | * ''lagvake'' "to assume": ''lagvē — lavuk — alagva'' | ||
* ''ṣṭagvake'' "to carve": '' | * ''ṣṭagvake'' "to carve": ''ṣṭagvē — ṣṭavuk — aṣṭagva'' | ||
Other various irregular verbs: | Other various irregular verbs: | ||
* ''leilge'' (''leig-ke'') "to concern, to be on the topic of": '' | * ''leilge'' (''leig-ke'') "to concern, to be on the topic of": ''leigē — (lågau) lål — eleiga'' | ||
* ''ręiške'' "to tickle": '' | * ''ręiške'' "to tickle": ''ręišē — (rąšau) rąs — eręiša | ||
* ''lårpake'' "to swing": '' | * ''lårpake'' "to swing": ''lårpē — lerpek — alurpa'' | ||
Three vowel-ending roots have an irregular behaviour: | Three vowel-ending roots have an irregular behaviour: | ||
* ''rileike'' "to need" has the expected ''ei → ey'' change in the present, but adds ''-n-'' in the past instead: ''rileyu, rileyi, | * ''rileike'' "to need" has the expected ''ei → ey'' change in the present, but adds ''-n-'' in the past instead: ''rileyu, rileyi, rileyē...'' but ''rileinu, rileinei, rileik''... | ||
* ''lįke'' "to swim (monodirectional) and ''mųke'' "to jump (monodirectional)" behave before vowels as if their stems were (ablauting) *lis- and *mus-: pres. exterior ''lesu, lesi, | * ''lįke'' "to swim (monodirectional) and ''mųke'' "to jump (monodirectional)" behave before vowels as if their stems were (ablauting) *lis- and *mus-: pres. exterior ''lesu, lesi, lesē''...; past exterior ''lisau, lisei, lįk''. | ||
====The verb "to be" (jalle)==== | ====The verb "to be" (jalle)==== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Sing !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Sing !! 1st | ||
| ū || | | ū || ēk || rem || jalṣyam || eku | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| vei || | | vei || ēši || res || jalṣyes || eki | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| vi || | | vi || ē || ri || jalṣya || elē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| jelli || ekres || reri || jalṣyari || | | jelli || ekres || reri || jalṣyari || ēdia | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| jali || | | jali || ēdat || ri || jalṣya || ēde | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| jali || | | jali || eivē || ri || jalṣya || ekāhai | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
| jaliotīs || gīti || | | jaliotīs || gīti || jeivē || jeivikṣotīs || jijālie || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st | ||
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=====In compound verbs===== | =====In compound verbs===== | ||
There are some compound verbs which are formed by a "meaning stem" + ''gyake''; they conjugate just like ''gyake'' does: | There are some compound verbs which are formed by a "meaning stem" + ''gyake''; they conjugate just like ''gyake'' does: | ||
* ''pṛšcāñjalle'' "to like"<ref>More properly "to be pleasing", e.g. ''lunai loh pṛšcāmvi'' "tea is pleasing to me" → "I like tea".</ref> → present ''pṛšcāmū'', ''pṛšcāmvei'', ''pṛšcāmvi''... past '' | * ''pṛšcāñjalle'' "to like"<ref>More properly "to be pleasing", e.g. ''lunai loh pṛšcāmvi'' "tea is pleasing to me" → "I like tea".</ref> → present ''pṛšcāmū'', ''pṛšcāmvei'', ''pṛšcāmvi''... past ''pṛšcāmēk'', ''pṛšcāmēši'', ''pṛšcāmē''... perfect ''pṛšcāṃrem''... future ''pṛšcāñjalṣyam'' ; the same in other moods, e.g. necessitative present ''pṛšcāñjaluṣyu'', ''pṛšcāñjaluṣyi''...<br/>Note that in colloquial speech the form of ''jalle'' is omitted in the present indicative, e.g. ''pṛšcām'' is "to be pleasing" for all persons. | ||
* ''najalle'' "to happen" morphologically conjugates like ''jalle'' but has some peculiarities: | * ''najalle'' "to happen" morphologically conjugates like ''jalle'' but has some peculiarities: | ||
** Like ''jalle'', there is no agent-, dative-, and instrumental-trigger voice, but the patient-trigger voice has a dative meaning - e.g. ''nañū'' "it happens to me". | ** Like ''jalle'', there is no agent-, dative-, and instrumental-trigger voice, but the patient-trigger voice has a dative meaning - e.g. ''nañū'' "it happens to me". | ||
** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirena'' "they happen", and so on. | ** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirena'' "they happen", and so on. | ||
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > '' | ** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe". | ||
====The honorific verb ''tilah''==== | ====The honorific verb ''tilah''==== | ||
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* The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tilęm - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...''). | * The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tilęm - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...''). | ||
* The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ilьd'': ''tilьdu, tilьdi, tilьde...'' interior ''tilьdru, tilьdri, tilьdre...'' | * The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ilьd'': ''tilьdu, tilьdi, tilьde...'' interior ''tilьdru, tilьdri, tilьdre...'' | ||
* The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nināja - nineši - | * The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nināja - nineši - nīvē''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...''). | ||
* The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlьr-'' (''nīlьram, nīlьres, nīlьrā...'') and the causative ''nīlьd-'' (''nīlьdam, nīlьdes, nīlьdā...'' ''nīlьdṛm, nīlьdṛs, nīlьdirā...''). | * The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlьr-'' (''nīlьram, nīlьres, nīlьrā...'') and the causative ''nīlьd-'' (''nīlьdam, nīlьdes, nīlьdā...'' ''nīlьdṛm, nīlьdṛs, nīlьdirā...''). | ||
* The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...''). | * The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...''). | ||
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Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb: | Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb: | ||
* ''perfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''gyake'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech. | * ''perfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''gyake'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech. | ||
** ''yųlevitaṃte lā | ** ''yųlevitaṃte lā ēk'' "I had eaten" | ||
** ''yųlevitaṃte lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten" | ** ''yųlevitaṃte lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten" | ||
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''gyake'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''gyake'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present. | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''gyake'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''gyake'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present. | ||
** ''yųlatiaṃte lā ū'' "I am eating" | ** ''yųlatiaṃte lā ū'' "I am eating" | ||
** ''yųlatiaṃte lā | ** ''yųlatiaṃte lā ēk'' "I was eating" | ||
** ''yųlatiaṃte lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating" | ** ''yųlatiaṃte lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating" | ||
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning. | * ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning. | ||
| Line 1,068: | Line 1,068: | ||
** ''lañšijildenartaflunirāhe'' "they ended up marrying each other" | ** ''lañšijildenartaflunirāhe'' "they ended up marrying each other" | ||
* ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed: | * ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed: | ||
** '' | ** ''valdekitē'' / ''uvaldevite kitē'' "it is kept opened" | ||
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X | * ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X | ||
** ''yųlakayįstetimu'' "I am about to eat" | ** ''yųlakayįstetimu'' "I am about to eat" | ||
** '' | ** ''yahikemaitimē'' "it is about to be read" | ||
* ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance — it can also be interpreted as a (plu)perfect if with perfect subjunctive: | * ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance — it can also be interpreted as a (plu)perfect if with perfect subjunctive: | ||
** ''yųlatiaṃte męliru'' "I eat in advance" | ** ''yųlatiaṃte męliru'' "I eat in advance" | ||
| Line 1,163: | Line 1,163: | ||
The pronouns doubling as adjectives are: | The pronouns doubling as adjectives are: | ||
* Three demonstratives, all declining for case only, not for number: proximal ''' | * Three demonstratives, all declining for case only, not for number: proximal '''nenē'''; medial '''nunū'''; distal '''nanā'''. | ||
* The possessives: '''liliā''', '''meyā''', '''sāmiā''', '''naniā''', '''ravyā''', '''kūriā''', '''tamiā'''; '''tomiā''', '''tameṣyā''', ('''yaniā'''). | * The possessives: '''liliā''', '''meyā''', '''sāmiā''', '''naniā''', '''ravyā''', '''kūriā''', '''tamiā'''; '''tomiā''', '''tameṣyā''', ('''yaniā'''). | ||
Among younger speakers in some areas the Jade Coast, most notably in Līlasuṃghāṇa, Taitepamba, and Mileyīkhā, demonstratives and possessives are not inflected at all, e.g. ''lili nanā | Among younger speakers in some areas the Jade Coast, most notably in Līlasuṃghāṇa, Taitepamba, and Mileyīkhā, demonstratives and possessives are not inflected at all, e.g. ''lili nanā phēcamu mišau'' "I saw that cat" instead of standard ''lili nanau phēcamu mišau''. | ||
In addition, '''yani''' is an emphatic pronoun not properly part of common speech (''demi'' is used instead) but sometimes found in high style. Archaic Chlouvānem had a demonstrative series consisting of proximal '''ami''', medial '''uteni''', and distal '''āteni''', which declined in use throughout Classical times, when they were replaced by the newer '' | In addition, '''yani''' is an emphatic pronoun not properly part of common speech (''demi'' is used instead) but sometimes found in high style. Archaic Chlouvānem had a demonstrative series consisting of proximal '''ami''', medial '''uteni''', and distal '''āteni''', which declined in use throughout Classical times, when they were replaced by the newer ''nenē — nunū — nanā'' forms. | ||
''ami'' is still used regionally around the mid-course of the Lāmiejāya where it has been repurposed as a definiteness marker for non-triggered arguments - Standard Chlouvānem usually topicalizes the argument or uses ''nanā'', or, colloquially, leaves it unmarked and only understandable by context; cf. "the tiger is seen by the wolf": | ''ami'' is still used regionally around the mid-course of the Lāmiejāya where it has been repurposed as a definiteness marker for non-triggered arguments - Standard Chlouvānem usually topicalizes the argument or uses ''nanā'', or, colloquially, leaves it unmarked and only understandable by context; cf. "the tiger is seen by the wolf": | ||
: ''<small>(Standard):</small> | : ''<small>(Standard):</small> ēmīla nanye bāḍhmānæ mešē'', or ''bāḍhmān mæn ēmīla mēšē'', or ''ēmīla bāḍhmānæ mēšē''. | ||
: ''<small>(Mid-Lāmiejāyi):</small> | : ''<small>(Mid-Lāmiejāyi):</small> ēmīla amye bāḍhmānæ mešē''. | ||
As mentioned before, Chlouvānem does not distinguish singular formal superior and plural "you", having the single pronoun ''nani'' for both. Unlike the similar situation in English, Chlouvānem still differentiates them by marking number on the verb, so for example "you (sg) work" is ''nani pūni'', and "you (pl) work" is ''nani pūnašin''. Originally, ''nani'' was only the 2nd person singular feminine pronoun (as shown by its cognates in other Lahob languages); in Archaic Chlouvānem the original plural pronoun ''nagin'' is attested, but we lack attestations of any form except the direct and the genitive (''nagyā''). | As mentioned before, Chlouvānem does not distinguish singular formal superior and plural "you", having the single pronoun ''nani'' for both. Unlike the similar situation in English, Chlouvānem still differentiates them by marking number on the verb, so for example "you (sg) work" is ''nani pūni'', and "you (pl) work" is ''nani pūnašin''. Originally, ''nani'' was only the 2nd person singular feminine pronoun (as shown by its cognates in other Lahob languages); in Archaic Chlouvānem the original plural pronoun ''nagin'' is attested, but we lack attestations of any form except the direct and the genitive (''nagyā''). | ||
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! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern. | ! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Attributive || rowspan=2 | '' | | Attributive || rowspan=2 | ''nenē''<br/>this (one) || rowspan=2 | ''nunū''<br/>that (one) (near you) || rowspan=2 | ''nanā''<br/>that (one) (over there) || rowspan=2 | ''yananū?''<br/>what?, which (one) ? || ''gu''<br/>no || ''sora''<br/>some || ''læti''<br/>any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva''<br/>every(thing) || ''viṣam''<br/>another || ''guviṣam''<br/>no other | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Thing || ''gvami''<br/>nothing || ''sorami''<br/>something || ''lætyami''<br/>anything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else | | Thing || ''gvami''<br/>nothing || ''sorami''<br/>something || ''lætyami''<br/>anything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else | ||
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{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Case || ā-paradigm !! | ! rowspan=2 | Case || ā-paradigm !! ē-paradigm !! ū-paradigm !! t-paradigm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small>All possessives, ''nanā'', ''yacāryā?'',<br/> ''ami'', correlatives in ''-i''<ref>e.g. ''læti'', ''sorami''…</ref></small> !! <small>'' | ! <small>All possessives, ''nanā'', ''yacāryā?'',<br/> ''ami'', correlatives in ''-i''<ref>e.g. ''læti'', ''sorami''…</ref></small> !! <small>''nenē'' only</small> !! <small>''nunū'' only</small> !! <small>''yasmāt?'' and ''yanūḍat?''</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Direct<br/>Vocative | ! Direct<br/>Vocative | ||
| '''liliā''' || ''' | | '''liliā''' || '''nenē''' || '''nunū''' || '''yasmāt''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Translative | ! Translative | ||
| liliān || | | liliān || nenēn || nunūn || yasmān | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Exessive | ! Exessive | ||
| liliāt || | | liliāt || nenēt || nunūt || yasmātat | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Essive | ! Essive | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| liliąu || | | liliąu || nenēhu || nunūvu || yasmąu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| lileni || | | lileni || nenēni || nunauni || yasmaini | ||
|} | |} | ||
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* '''flušamelīs''' (voc.: ''flušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''flušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''flušamelī(s) lāma''. | * '''flušamelīs''' (voc.: ''flušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''flušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''flušamelī(s) lāma''. | ||
* '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…). | * '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…). | ||
* '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga | * '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gērisi'' but as ''[…] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma'', literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".</ref> | ||
* '''juṃša''' — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [(surname +) name] ''juṃša lāma'' (+ diocese name-<small>GEN</small>). | * '''juṃša''' — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [(surname +) name] ''juṃša lāma'' (+ diocese name-<small>GEN</small>). | ||
* '''lallaflušamelīs''' (voc.: ''lallaflušamelī'') — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (''flušamaili eṇāh'', the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''taili aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallaflušamelī(s) lāma''. | * '''lallaflušamelīs''' (voc.: ''lallaflušamelī'') — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (''flušamaili eṇāh'', the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''taili aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallaflušamelī(s) lāma''. | ||
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There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific: | There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific: | ||
* '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too. | * '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too. | ||
* '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb ''tilah'', but today it is not used except for a few set phrases (e.g. ''lālis | * '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb ''tilah'', but today it is not used except for a few set phrases (e.g. ''lālis yacē nami'' "please"). | ||
* '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''. | * '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''. | ||
* '''dau-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific. | * '''dau-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 0 | ! 0 | ||
| 0 || '''ajrā''' || <small>''(ajrāyende)''</small> || <small>''(ajrāmūh)''</small> || <small>''( | | 0 || '''ajrā''' || <small>''(ajrāyende)''</small> || <small>''(ajrāmūh)''</small> || <small>''(ajrehaicē)''</small> || <small>''(lājrā)''</small> || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
| 1 || '''leila''' || lahīla || leilamūh || | | 1 || '''leila''' || lahīla || leilamūh || leiluhaicē || leilahæl<br/>lāleila || lahīlvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
| 2 || '''dani'''|| hælinaika || daniamūh || | | 2 || '''dani'''|| hælinaika || daniamūh || danihaicē || danihæl<br/>lādani || hælinaivāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
| 3 || '''pāmvi''' || pāmvende || pāmvimūh || | | 3 || '''pāmvi''' || pāmvende || pāmvimūh || pāmvihaicē || pāmvihæl<br/>lāpāmvi || pāmvendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | ! 4 | ||
| 4 || '''nęlte''' || nęltende || nęltemūh || | | 4 || '''nęlte''' || nęltende || nęltemūh || nęltehaicē || nęltehæl<br/>lānęlte || nęltendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 5 | ! 5 | ||
| 5 || '''šulka''' || šulkende || šulkamūh || | | 5 || '''šulka''' || šulkende || šulkamūh || šulkhaicē || lāšulka || šulkendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 6 | ! 6 | ||
| 6 || '''tulūɂa''' || tulūɂende || tulūɂamūh || | | 6 || '''tulūɂa''' || tulūɂende || tulūɂamūh || tulūɂihaicē || lātulūɂa || tulūɂendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcænde || chīkamūh || | | 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcænde || chīkamūh || chīcihaicē || lāchīka || chīcændvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 8 | ! 8 | ||
| 8 || '''tītya''' || tītyende || tītyamūh || | | 8 || '''tītya''' || tītyende || tītyamūh || tītihaicē || lātītya || tītyendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| 9 || '''moja''' || mojende || mojmūh || | | 9 || '''moja''' || mojende || mojmūh || mojihaicē || lāmoja || mojendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ᘔ | ! ᘔ | ||
| 10 || '''tålda''' || tåldende || tåldamūh || | | 10 || '''tålda''' || tåldende || tåldamūh || tåldihaicē || lātålda || tåldendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ɛ | ! Ɛ | ||
| 11 || '''vælden''' || vældinde || vældemūh || | | 11 || '''vælden''' || vældinde || vældemūh || vældihaicē || lāvælden || vældindvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 10 | ! 10 | ||
| 12 || '''māmei''' || māminde || māmeimūh || | | 12 || '''māmei''' || māminde || māmeimūh || māmeihaicē || lāmāmei || māmindvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 11 | ! 11 | ||
| 13 || '''lelimaye''' || lelimayinde || lelimaimūh || | | 13 || '''lelimaye''' || lelimayinde || lelimaimūh || lelimaihaicē || lālelimaye || lelimayindvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 12 | ! 12 | ||
| 14 || '''danimaye''' || danimayinde || danimaimūh || | | 14 || '''danimaye''' || danimayinde || danimaimūh || danimaihaicē || lādanimaye || danimayindvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 13 | ! 13 | ||
| 15 || '''pamihælī''' || pamihælīnde || pamihælīmūh || | | 15 || '''pamihælī''' || pamihælīnde || pamihælīmūh || pamihælīhaicē || lāpamihælī || pamihælīndvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 14 | ! 14 | ||
| 16 || '''māminęlte'''|| māminęltende || māminęltemūh || | | 16 || '''māminęlte'''|| māminęltende || māminęltemūh || māminęltehaicē || lāmāminęlte || māmiynęltendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 15 | ! 15 | ||
| 17 || '''māmišulka''' || māmišulkende || māmišulkamūh || | | 17 || '''māmišulka''' || māmišulkende || māmišulkamūh || māmišulkhaicē || lāmāmišulka || māmišulkendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 16 | ! 16 | ||
| 18 || '''māmivælka''' || māmivælkende || māmivælkamūh || | | 18 || '''māmivælka''' || māmivælkende || māmivælkamūh || māmivælkihaicē || lāmāmivælka || māmivælkendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
| 19 || '''māmichīka''' || māmichīcænde || māmichīkamūh || | | 19 || '''māmichīka''' || māmichīcænde || māmichīkamūh || māmichīcihaicē || lāmāmichīka || māmichīcændvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 18 | ! 18 | ||
| 20 || '''māmitītya''' || māmitītyende || māmitītyamūh || | | 20 || '''māmitītya''' || māmitītyende || māmitītyamūh || māmitītihaicē || lāmāmitītya || māmitītyendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 19 | ! 19 | ||
| 21 || '''māmimoja''' || māmimojende || māmimojmūh || | | 21 || '''māmimoja''' || māmimojende || māmimojmūh || māmimojihaicē || lāmāmimoja || māmimojendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1ᘔ | ! 1ᘔ | ||
| 22 || '''māmitålda''' || māmitåldende || māmitåldamūh || | | 22 || '''māmitålda''' || māmitåldende || māmitåldamūh || māmitåldihaicē || lāmāmitålda || māmitåldendvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1Ɛ | ! 1Ɛ | ||
| 23 || '''māmivælden''' || māmivældinde || māmivældemūh || | | 23 || '''māmivælden''' || māmivældinde || māmivældemūh || māmivældihaicē || lāmāmivælden || māmivældindvāṭ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 20 | ! 20 | ||
| 24 || '''hælьmāmei''' || hælьmāminde || hælьmāmeimūh || | | 24 || '''hælьmāmei''' || hælьmāminde || hælьmāmeimūh || hælьmāmeihaicē || lāhælьmāmei || hælьmāmindvāṭ | ||
|} | |} | ||
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Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''tildhādi'', ''dani tildhā'', or (only emphatically) ''dani tildhādi''. | Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''tildhādi'', ''dani tildhā'', or (only emphatically) ''dani tildhādi''. | ||
The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a '' | The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''raicē'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' <small>(35.831.808<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''lallaraicē''. | ||
The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''. | The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''. | ||
Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-ende'' (''-inde'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-mūh'' for collectives, ''- | Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-ende'' (''-inde'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-mūh'' for collectives, ''-haicē'' for distributives, ''lā-'' for adverbials/multiplicatives, and ''-endvāṭ/-indvāṭ'' for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. ''hælьmāmihælinaika'' 22<sub>12</sub>nd (26<sub>10</sub>th). | ||
Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: ''vālьhælia'' 1½, ''vālьpāmvya'' 2½, ''vālьnęltia'' 3½, ''vālьšulca'' 4½, and ''vālьtulūya'' 5½. Other forms such as ''vālьchīca'', ''vālьtītiya'', and so on are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as ''tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no'' (or, sometimes, ''- vælka no'') are more commonly heard and used nowadays. | Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: ''vālьhælia'' 1½, ''vālьpāmvya'' 2½, ''vālьnęltia'' 3½, ''vālьšulca'' 4½, and ''vālьtulūya'' 5½. Other forms such as ''vālьchīca'', ''vālьtītiya'', and so on are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as ''tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no'' (or, sometimes, ''- vælka no'') are more commonly heard and used nowadays. | ||
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====Declensions of cardinal numbers==== | ====Declensions of cardinal numbers==== | ||
Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. Informal Chlouvānem only declines ''leila'', often with an analogical pattern based on '''1h''' nouns. Only the numbers from '''1''' to '''Ɛ''' as well as ''nihæla'' and its compounds decline as such. ''tildhā'', ''(lalla) | Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. Informal Chlouvānem only declines ''leila'', often with an analogical pattern based on '''1h''' nouns. Only the numbers from '''1''' to '''Ɛ''' as well as ''nihæla'' and its compounds decline as such. ''tildhā'', ''(lalla)raicē'', and ''(lalla)taiskaucis'' are always declined, but they are fully nouns. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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* "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''dani māra'' or ''māri dani'' are both as correct as ''dani mārion'' and ''māreva dani'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning. Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral. | * "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''dani māra'' or ''māri dani'' are both as correct as ''dani mārion'' and ''māreva dani'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning. Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral. | ||
Ordinals, collectives, and multiplicatives are simply used invariable "adjectives", but collectives and multiplicatives are always singular (optionally dual for ''daniamūh'' and ''lādani''). e.g. ''hælinaika kita'' "second house", ''tītyamūh lejīn'' "all eight singers", ''lāpāmvi yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large". Bare multiplicatives may carry either the meaning of "repeated X times" or "X times as large", but the latter is most commonly specified with a comparison (ablative case) or by context. Ordinals decline as 1h nouns if used without any noun (e.g. ''hælinaikom | Ordinals, collectives, and multiplicatives are simply used invariable "adjectives", but collectives and multiplicatives are always singular (optionally dual for ''daniamūh'' and ''lādani''). e.g. ''hælinaika kita'' "second house", ''tītyamūh lejīn'' "all eight singers", ''lāpāmvi yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large". Bare multiplicatives may carry either the meaning of "repeated X times" or "X times as large", but the latter is most commonly specified with a comparison (ablative case) or by context. Ordinals decline as 1h nouns if used without any noun (e.g. ''hælinaikom męliē'' "it is given to the second" — but ''hælinaika lilom męliē'' "it is given to the second person").<br/> | ||
Collectives are often used with the meaning of "all X of..." - e.g. ''tītyamūh lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" -, with the meaning of "X sets of" with pluralia and singularia tantum, e.g. ''pāmvimūh hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs''), and with people and animals in order to say "a group of X", taken as a single entity: there can be subtle differences in meaning, e.g. ''chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīkamūh lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a collective) both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action it is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). | Collectives are often used with the meaning of "all X of..." - e.g. ''tītyamūh lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" -, with the meaning of "X sets of" with pluralia and singularia tantum, e.g. ''pāmvimūh hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs''), and with people and animals in order to say "a group of X", taken as a single entity: there can be subtle differences in meaning, e.g. ''chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīkamūh lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a collective) both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action it is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). | ||
Distributives are indeclinable adjectives, and have the meaning of "X each": '' | Distributives are indeclinable adjectives, and have the meaning of "X each": ''pāmvihaicē titē męliāhai'' "three pens each are given"; ''lili liliā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē kolecañi alau ulgutarate'' "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in ''titē'' (pencil) and ''alūs'' (acc. ''alau'') "bottle". | ||
Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.<small>GEN</small> numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with ''-vaḍa'' in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + ''vaḍa'', meaning Xth part, e.g. ''hælinaika vaḍa'' (the second part) → ''hælinaivāṭ''). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: ''marti hælinaivāṭ'' "half of the city" ; ''alāvi nęltendvāṭ'' "one fourth of the bottle" ; ''bhæli tulūɂendvaḍe'' "in one sixth of the country". | Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.<small>GEN</small> numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with ''-vaḍa'' in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + ''vaḍa'', meaning Xth part, e.g. ''hælinaika vaḍa'' (the second part) → ''hælinaivāṭ''). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: ''marti hælinaivāṭ'' "half of the city" ; ''alāvi nęltendvāṭ'' "one fourth of the bottle" ; ''bhæli tulūɂendvaḍe'' "in one sixth of the country". | ||
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! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.) | ! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! sjē | ||
| | | sejyēh || <small>dimin. from ''segen'' (spoon)</small> || ½ seg || ~5.78704 mL | ||
|- | |- | ||
! seg | ! seg | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! val | ! val | ||
| ''' | | '''valdhēna''' || <small>Flagon</small> || ''(base unit)'' || 0.625 L | ||
|- | |- | ||
! al | ! al | ||
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* '''nali''', when used with a noun in direct case, marks the benefactive argument in any voice except benefactive-trigger. When used with a verb in subjunctive mood, it means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (when compared to the bare subjunctive, which already has that meaning). | * '''nali''', when used with a noun in direct case, marks the benefactive argument in any voice except benefactive-trigger. When used with a verb in subjunctive mood, it means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (when compared to the bare subjunctive, which already has that meaning). | ||
* '''nānim''' translates "almost", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood. | * '''nānim''' translates "almost", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood. | ||
* '''natte''' translates "until", with a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan natte'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa | * '''natte''' translates "until", with a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan natte'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahērimaila ga keikom natte'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahērimaila Station".</ref> or a verb in the subjunctive. | ||
* '''ni''' translates "but" as a coordinating conjunction. | * '''ni''' translates "but" as a coordinating conjunction. | ||
* '''no''' translates English "and" when between nouns and when denoting a complete listing; for incomplete listings (e.g. "X and Y and so on") the particle '''lasь''' is used. Both follow the noun they refer to, and in listings with more than two nouns they follow every noun except the first. They can also translate "and" between verbs, but ''sama'' is preferred between sentences, especially with different subjects (e.g. ''yąlute molute no'' "I eat and drink", either '' | * '''no''' translates English "and" when between nouns and when denoting a complete listing; for incomplete listings (e.g. "X and Y and so on") the particle '''lasь''' is used. Both follow the noun they refer to, and in listings with more than two nouns they follow every noun except the first. They can also translate "and" between verbs, but ''sama'' is preferred between sentences, especially with different subjects (e.g. ''yąlute molute no'' "I eat and drink", either ''mēlitu yąlute kolecañu molute no'' or ''mēlitu yąlute sama kolecañu molute'' "I eat curry and drink kvas", but most often ''mēlitu yąlute sama liliā ñæltah kolecañu molegde'' "I eat curry and my sister drinks kvas". Note that ''mēlitu yąlute liliā ñæltah kolecañu molegde no'' is still correct, but mostly found in literary or very formal language). | ||
* '''pa''' translates "on, of, about; concerning, on the subject of", and requires a noun direct case or a verb in subjunctive mood. | * '''pa''' translates "on, of, about; concerning, on the subject of", and requires a noun direct case or a verb in subjunctive mood. | ||
* '''sama''' translates "and" as a coordinating conjunction between clauses. If the following word starts with a vowel, it is shortened to '''sam''''. | * '''sama''' translates "and" as a coordinating conjunction between clauses. If the following word starts with a vowel, it is shortened to '''sam''''. | ||
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* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamie tamiu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!" | * '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamie tamiu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!" | ||
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe mos tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]" | * '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe mos tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]" | ||
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. '' | * '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenēyu daudiute tati ukulaṃte tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!" | ||
==Derivational morphology - Vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita== | ==Derivational morphology - Vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita== | ||
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'''-yāva''' with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/> | '''-yāva''' with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/> | ||
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālyāva'' (union)<br/> | * ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālyāva'' (union)<br/> | ||
* '' | * ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''šaulvyāva'' (fertility) (morphemically //hьaulvyava//)<br/> | ||
* ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtyāva'' (cleanliness) | * ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtyāva'' (cleanliness) | ||
* Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an ''-aus-'' adjectival verb (e.g. ''chlærausake'' ((to be) easy) → ''chlærausyāva'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions (e.g. ''lalla'' (high) → ''lalliyāva'' (highness, superiority)). ''taugyāva'' (life) has ''au'' because it's derived from ''taugikā'' (heart) and not the bare root ''tug'' (to beat). | * Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an ''-aus-'' adjectival verb (e.g. ''chlærausake'' ((to be) easy) → ''chlærausyāva'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions (e.g. ''lalla'' (high) → ''lalliyāva'' (highness, superiority)). ''taugyāva'' (life) has ''au'' because it's derived from ''taugikā'' (heart) and not the bare root ''tug'' (to beat). | ||
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'''-āmita''' (''-ьāmita'' when used with nouns with thematic ''e'' or ''i''), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/> | '''-āmita''' (''-ьāmita'' when used with nouns with thematic ''e'' or ''i''), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/> | ||
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltiāmita'' (friendship)<br/> | * ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltiāmita'' (friendship)<br/> | ||
* '' | * ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlāmita'' (nobility (quality); most important people in society<ref>Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.</ref>)<br/> | ||
* ''ñæltah'' (sister (for a male)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood) | * ''ñæltah'' (sister (for a male)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood) | ||
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* ''dara'' (activity) → ''daradhūs'' (verb) | * ''dara'' (activity) → ''daradhūs'' (verb) | ||
* ''šaṇṭrās'' (field, soil) → ''šaṇṭrādhūs'' (countryside) | * ''šaṇṭrās'' (field, soil) → ''šaṇṭrādhūs'' (countryside) | ||
* '' | * ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''hælvidhūs'' (fruiting tree; <small>literary:</small> pregnant woman) | ||
'''-bān''' and '''-ūrah''' are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule. | '''-bān''' and '''-ūrah''' are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule. | ||
* '' | * ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''hælvēbān'' (orchard) | ||
* ''lil'' (to live) → ''lilūrah'' (world) | * ''lil'' (to live) → ''lilūrah'' (world) | ||
* ''peith'' (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūrah'' (passage) | * ''peith'' (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūrah'' (passage) | ||
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* ''bilumbida'' (sodium) + ''talielīm'' (chlorine) → ''bilumbītalielīyai'' (sodium chloride) | * ''bilumbida'' (sodium) + ''talielīm'' (chlorine) → ''bilumbītalielīyai'' (sodium chloride) | ||
'''-ceh''', '''-cænah''', and '''- | '''-ceh''', '''-cænah''', and '''-cañēh''' (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in '''-cæñ-cañēh''': | ||
* ''samin'' (child) → ''samiñcænah'' (little child) | * ''samin'' (child) → ''samiñcænah'' (little child) | ||
* '' | * ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlcañēh'' (cat) | ||
* ''pǣka'' (taste) →''pǣcicænah'' (hors d'œuvre, entrée) | * ''pǣka'' (taste) →''pǣcicænah'' (hors d'œuvre, entrée) | ||
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'''-ṣeni-ke''' (morph. ''senь-ke'', all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix. | '''-ṣeni-ke''' (morph. ''senь-ke'', all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix. | ||
* '' | * ''rahēlah'' (health) → ''rahēlṣenike'' (healthy) | ||
* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent) | * ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent) | ||
* ''meimairuh'' (emerald) → ''meimairūṣenike'' (emeraldine, emerald-like) | * ''meimairuh'' (emerald) → ''meimairūṣenike'' (emeraldine, emerald-like) | ||
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* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of | * ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of | ||
* ''vai- 〜 vǣ-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit | * ''vai- 〜 vǣ-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit | ||
* '' | * ''ēle- 〜 ora-'' - next to; along; on the side of | ||
* ''lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)-'' - in the center of | * ''lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)-'' - in the center of | ||
* ''vyā- 〜 veši-'' - left | * ''vyā- 〜 veši-'' - left | ||
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Used for medical terminology: | Used for medical terminology: | ||
* '''-gulas''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagulas'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain". | * '''-gulas''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagulas'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain". | ||
** '''- | ** '''-gulašåliē''' is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ''ryukagulašåliē'' "masochist". | ||
* '''-ræṣka''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''nalekiræṣka'' "obesity" from Lällshag ''naleki'' "fat"; ''vrayegårlæṣka'' "dysphagia" (note dissimilation of -rr-) from ''vre-'' (bad) and ''egåram'' (stomach). | * '''-ræṣka''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''nalekiræṣka'' "obesity" from Lällshag ''naleki'' "fat"; ''vrayegårlæṣka'' "dysphagia" (note dissimilation of -rr-) from ''vre-'' (bad) and ''egåram'' (stomach). | ||
** '''-ræṣkanis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''rauga'', e.g. ''nalekiræṣkanis'' "obese", ''vrayegårlæṣkanis'' "dysphagic". | ** '''-ræṣkanis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''rauga'', e.g. ''nalekiræṣkanis'' "obese", ''vrayegårlæṣkanis'' "dysphagic". | ||