Carpathian verbs
Carpathian verbs reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called TAM. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as participles, infinitive and supine are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its arguments, which is called polypersonal agreement, while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — sēdē- (infinitive and aorist), sēdi- (imperfective) and sōd- (perfect); “remain” — lik- (infinitive), leik- (present), likā- (aorist) laik- (perfect).
Personal Endings
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: athematic and thematic, the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:
| Athematic | Thematic | Athematic | Thematic | Athematic | Thematic | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Aorist | Perfect | |||||
| Singular | 1st | -mi | -ū | -ùn | -ùn | -ai | -a |
| 2nd | -si | -ei | -s | -is | -tai | -ta | |
| 3rd | -ti | -e | -∅/-a | -e | -ei | -e | |
| Dual | 1st | -wā́ | -(e)wā́ | -awā́ | -(a)wā́ | -wā́ | -wā́ |
| 2nd | -tā́ | -(e)tā́ | -atā́ | -(a)tā́ | -tā́ | -tā́ | |
| 3rd | -tìs | -(e)tìs | -atìs | -(a)tìs | -tìs | -tìs | |
| Plural | 1st | -mès | -(e)mùn/-mà | -amè | -(a)mè | -mè | -mè |
| 2nd | -tè | -(e)tè | -atè | -(a)tè | -tè | -tè | |
| 3rd | -eñti | -añti | -iñ | -añ | -ínti | -ín | |
- In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present thematic ending is -mun, while in Eastern Carpathian it is -ma.
Conjugation
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the si- suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense.
| Athematic verbs | e-stem verbs | ē/ī-stem verbs | ā-stem verbs | suffixed (ēj-stem) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| skeistéi “to read” | stèrhetei “to extend” | turḗtei “to hold” | gidā́tei “to wait” | zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age” | ||
| Singular | 1st sg | skeĩmi | stèrhū | turiū́ | gidā́hū | zirhḗjū |
| 2nd sg | skeĩsi | stèrhei | turiéi | gidā́hei | zirhḗjei | |
| 3rd sg | skeĩsti | stèrhe | tùrie | gidā́ | zirhḗje | |
| Dual | 1st du | skeitwā́ | sterhewā́ | turiewā́ | gidewā́ | zirhējewā́ |
| 2nd du | skeistā́ | sterhetā́ | turietā́ | gidetā́ | zirhējetā́ | |
| 3rd du}} | skeistìs | sterhetìs | turietìs | gidetìs | zirhējetìs | |
| Plural | 1st pl | skeimès | sterhemà | turiemà | gidemà | zirhējemà |
| 2nd pl | skeistè | sterhetè | turietè | gidetè | zirhējetè | |
| 3rd pl | skeiteñti | sterhañti | turiañti | gidañti | zirhējañti | |
The verb stèrhetei “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ster̃hetei. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: lìktei “to remain” — leĩkū “I remain”.
| Athematic verbs | e-stem verbs | ē-stem verbs | ā-stem verbs | suffixed (ēj-stem) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| skeistéi “to read” | stèrhetei “to extend” | turḗtei “to hold” | gidā́tei “to wait” | zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age” | ||
| Singular | 1st sg | skeĩtun | stèrhun | turḗjun | gidā́sun | zirhḗjun |
| 2nd sg | skeĩs | stèrhis | turḗjis | gidā́sis | zirhḗjis | |
| 3rd sg | skeĩ | stèrhe | turḗ | gidā́s | zirhḗje | |
| Dual | 1st du | skeitawā́ | sterhawā́ | turēwā́ | gidāsawā́ | zirhējawā́ |
| 2nd du | skeitatā́ | sterhatā́ | turētā́ | gidāsatā́ | zirhējatā́ | |
| 3rd du}} | skeitatìs | sterhatìs | turētìs | gidāsatìs | zirhējatìs | |
| Plural | 1st pl | skeitamè | sterhamè | turēmè | gidāsamè | zirhējamè |
| 2nd pl | skeitatè | sterhatè | turētè | gidāsatè | zirhējatè | |
| 3rd pl | skeitiñ | sterhañ | turējañ | gidāsañ | zirhējañ | |
The verb gidā́tei “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix -s with the lengthening of the previous vowel: kurtéi “to build”, degetéi “to burn” — kūr̃šanta “I built it”, dēšanta “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but tirimtéi “to shiver” — tirìmun “I shivered” (root aorist).
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: bèrōsa “I’m picking it up” — birā́hansa “I picked it up”, but gidā́hū “I’m waiting” — gidā́sun “I waited”.
| Athematic verbs | e-stem verbs | ē-stem verbs | ā-stem verbs | suffixed (ēj-stem) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| skeistéi “to read” | stèrhetei “to extend” | turḗtei “to hold” | gidā́tei “to wait” | zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age” | ||
| Singular | 1st sg | skaĩtai | stàrha | turḗja | gidā́ha | zirhḗja |
| 2nd sg | skaĩstai | stàrta | turḗta | gidā́ta | zirhḗta | |
| 3rd sg | skaĩtei | stàrhe | turḗje | gidā́he | zirhḗje | |
| Dual | 1st du | skaitwā́ | stárwā | turḗwā | gidā́wā | zirhḗwā |
| 2nd du | skaistā́ | stártā | turḗtā | gidā́tā | zirhḗtā | |
| 3rd du}} | skaistìs | stártis | turḗtis | gidā́tis | zirhḗtis | |
| Plural | 1st pl | skaimè | stárme | turḗme | gidā́me | zirhḗme |
| 2nd pl | skaistè | stárte | turḗte | gidā́te | zirhḗte | |
| 3rd pl | skaitínti | starhin | turḗjin | gidā́hin | zirhḗjin | |
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: leikū “I remain” — laika “I have remained/I am preserved”; pasadḗdemi “I’m putting it down” — pasadṓdai “I’ve put it down”.
| Athematic verbs | e-stem verbs | ē-stem verbs | ā-stem verbs | suffixed (ēj-stem) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| skeistéi “to read” | stèrhetei “to extend” | turḗtei “to hold” | gidā́tei “to wait” | zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age” | ||
| Singular | 1st sg | skeĩsiū | stèrhesiū | turḗsiū | gidā́siū | zirhḗsiū |
| 2nd sg | skeĩsiei | stèrhesiei | turḗsiei | gidā́siei | zirhḗsiei | |
| 3rd sg | skeĩs | stèrhis | turḗs | gidā́s | zirhḗs | |
| Dual | 1st du | skeĩsiwā | stèrhesiwā | turḗsiwā | gidā́siwā | zirhḗsiwā |
| 2nd du | skeĩsitā | stèrhesitā | turḗsitā | gidā́sitā | zirhḗsitā | |
| 3rd du}} | skeĩsitis | stèrhesitis | turḗsitis | gidā́sitis | zirhḗsitis | |
| Plural | 1st pl | skeĩsima | stèrhesima | turḗsima | gidā́sima | zirhḗsima |
| 2nd pl | skeĩsite | stèrhesite | turḗsite | gidā́site | zirhḗsite | |
| 3rd pl | skeĩsianti | stèrhesianti | turḗsianti | gidā́sianti | zirhḗsianti | |
| Athematic verbs | e-stem verbs | ē-stem verbs | ā-stem verbs | suffixed (ēj-stem) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| skeistéi “to read” | stèrhetei “to extend” | turḗtei “to hold” | gidā́tei “to wait” | zirhḗtei “to ripen, to age” | ||
| Singular | 1st sg | skìtiēn | stèrhain | tùriain | gidā́hain | zirhḗjain |
| 2nd sg | skìtiēs | stèrhais | tùriais | gidā́hais | zirhḗjais | |
| 3rd sg | skìtiēs | stèrhai | tùriai | gidā́hai | zirhḗjai | |
| Dual | 1st du | skitiḗwā | sterhaĩwā | turiaĩwā | gidahaĩwā | zirhḗjaiwā |
| 2nd du | skitiḗtā | sterhaĩtā | turiaĩtā | gidahaĩtā | zirhḗjaitā | |
| 3rd du}} | skitiḗtis | sterhaĩtis | turiaĩtis | gidahaĩtis | zirhḗjaitis | |
| Plural | 1st pl | skitiḗmes | sterhaĩma | turiaĩma | gidahaĩma | zirhḗjaima |
| 2nd pl | skitiḗte | stèrhaĩte | turiaĩte | gidahaĩte | zirhḗjaite | |
| 3rd pl | skitiénti | sterhajín | turējín | gidāhín | zirhḗjin | |