Antarctican/Nouns
Nouns in the Antarctican language inflect for case and possession, but are not marked for number or gender.
Case
Nouns decline into three cases, Absolutive, Ergative and Comitative. Absolutive case is unmarked while the other two use vowel changes on the final vowel and/or suffixes. Nouns can also take demonstrative and possessive prefixes.
Ergative case
How this case is formed depends on the phonation and frontness of the final vowel in the word.
Modally voiced final vowel
Final vowel is a back vowel
In this case, lower the back vowel e.g.
- tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
- tãn /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative
- doleengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
- doleengon /doleːŋoɴ/ - dragon, ergative
If the final vowel is a diphthong that begins with a back vowel, then the start of the diphthong is lowered e.g.
- paehoown /pɛχoːuɴ/ - dust, absolutive
- paehõown /pɛχɔːuɴ/ - dust, ergative
- yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive
- yuenpiloy /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, ergative
Final vowel is not a back vowel
In this case the ergative suffix is –n /ɴ/, or –ga /ga/ if the noun already ended in –n e.g.*zive /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive
- ziven /ziɥeɴ/ - boat, ergative
- myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
- myaewntayn-ga / mʲɛuɴtaiɴga/ - mountain, ergative
Final vowel has breathy or tense voice
For nouns where the vowel of the last syllable has breathy or tense voice, the situation is more complicated. They all take ergative suffixes of the form C V ɴ, where C is a consonant and V is a vowel. V is almost always /i/, except after /t/ or /d/, when it is /u/. However it is not possible to predict C, as shown by the examples below:
- teyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive
- teyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
- péy /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
- péykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative
- `kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
- `kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
- `ròe /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive
- `ròedun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative
- 'ków /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive
- 'kówpin */kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
- péylánkáe /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive
- péylánkáetun /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, ergative
- wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/- frog, absolutive
- wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, ergative
While it may seem that the consonant inserted before the –in (or –un) suffix is random, there are some patterns. Firstly, the inserted consonant is always an obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), and never a sonorant (nasal or approximant). Secondly, observe that, when the final vowel of the absolutive stem has tense voice, the inserted consonant is always voiceless, while if the final vowel of the absolutive stem has breathy voice, the inserted consonant is always voiced. These two rules hold across the language.
Also, for readers with knowledge of whatever language Antarctican borrowed the particular noun stem from, note that the “inserted” consonant almost perfectly corresponds with the consonant at the end of the word e.g. the word for “frog”, (wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/ in the absolutive case), is in fact descended from the English word “frog”. However, Antarctican does not like final consonants, so the final “g” was lost in the absolutive form. However in the ergative form, there is another vowel following the “g”, so it “reappears”, and the ergative form of the word is wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/. A similar story happens with the “t” in the word for “blanket”, which is also derived from English.
Stem changes
However, for some of the nouns with breathy or tense voice on the final vowel of the absolutive stem, there are changes in the stem when they take the ergative suffix. These involve a change in vowel phonation to modal voice, and often a change in vowel quality (as given by the table in the phonology section). e.g.
'tùen /tɨɴɦ/- wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
'tin-gin /tiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative (not *tùen-gin)
As a rule,
if the final vowel undergoes a change, and the second last vowel has the same
voicing as the final vowel, then they both change e.g.
ùylòen /ʔuiɦlɘɴɦ/ - island, absolutive
oylendun /ʔoileɴduɴ/ - island, ergative (not *qùilòendun)
tùròoen
/tuɦʁɘːɴɦ/ - fashionable items, absolutive
toreendun /toʁeːɴduɴ/ - fashionable items, ergative
If there are even more consecutive syllables with the same voicing on the vowel, then this rule applies to every single one of them e.g.
ámáeráy /ʔaʔmɛʔʁaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive
ameraeykin /ʔameʁɛikiɴ/ - prey, ergative
There are many, many other nouns that decline according to this pattern. Almost all of the nouns that end in /ɴ/ or contain a long vowel in the final syllable undergo vowel changes in the stem e.g.
'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive
'toenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative
kàao /kɜɦː/ - membership card, absolutive
kaadun /kaːduɴ/ - membership card, ergative
However, the converse is not true. For nouns
with non-modally voiced final vowels, but that do not end in /ɴ/ or a long
vowel, some undergo vowel changes e.g.
ùenào /ʔɨɦnɜɦ/ - eel, absolutive
inajin /ʔinaɟiɴ/ - eel, ergative
While others do not e.g.
`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
`kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
There are some nouns that have identical absolutive forms, but are distinguished in the ergative e.g.
'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive
kaechin /kɛciɴ/ - fence, ergative
ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive
kátlin /katɬiɴ/ coconut milk, ergative
Obstruent Voicing
If the absolutive form has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that separates two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if word initial), when the breathy voiced vowels acquire modal voice in the ergative form, the voiceless obstruent does too, becoming modally voiced e.g.
`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
`pàoy /pɜiɦ/ - baby, absolutive
baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative
`nyùewsùeylòen /ɲɨuɦsɨɦiɦlɘɴɦ/ - New Zealand, absolutive
nyuuziilendun /ɲuːziːleɴduɴ/ - New Zealand, ergative
If the absolutive form of a noun has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that is preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel, and is followed by a vowel with tense voice, if this tense voiced vowel becomes modally voiced in the ergative form, then the voiceless obstruent before it acquires modal voice too e.g.
yéysitléynyéy /jeiʔsitɬeiʔɲeiʔ/ - mutton, absolutive
yéysidlinyuekin /jeiʔsidɮiɲɨkiɴ/ - mutton, ergative
Here we can
see that the /tɬ/ in the absolutive form has changed to /dɮ/ in the
ergative form.
For word initial voiceless obstruents followed by tense voiced vowels in the absolutive
form, which change to modal voice vowels in the ergative form, sometimes this change
also occurs e.g.
támá /taʔmaʔ/- victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
Sonorant Devoicing
Another similar pattern occurs in sonorants. If, in the absolutive form, they are preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel (or modal voice floating phonation if word initial), and followed by a breathy or tense voiced vowel that changes in the ergative (to have modal voice), then the sonorant becomes devoiced. /w/ becomes /f/, /l/ becomes /ɬ/, /j/ becomes /ç/, and /ʁ/ becomes /χ/, voiced nasals become prestopped e.g.
aetenàolùn /ʔɛtenɜɦluɴɦ/ - heart, absolutive
aetoetnalonzin /ʔɛtɘtnaloɴziɴ/ - heart, ergative
De-Ejectivisation
There are some Antarctican nouns that have ejectives in the absolutive form. As required by the phonotactics, they have tense voiced vowels both before and after (possibly with /ɴ/ intervening). However, sometimes in the ergative form, the tense voiced vowel after the ejective becomes modally voiced. In this case, the airstream mechanism changes from glottalic egressive (ejective) to pulmonic egressive (normal) e.g.
'kqów
/kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive
'kuhlin /kuɬiɴ/ - a small amount, ergative
ráetqówléykuetu /ʁɛʔtʼoleiʔkɨtu/ - something self-limiting, absolutive
ráetoluekuetu /ʁɛʔtolɨkɨtu/ something self-limiting, ergative
'kéychqéy /keiʔcʼeiʔ/ - a female name, absolutive
'kéychuekin /keiʔcɨkiɴ/ - a female name, ergative
Comitative Case
How this is formed also depends on the frontness and phonation of the final vowel:
Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice
Last Vowel of Abs. Form is not a Back Vowel
In this case, take the absolutive form, raise /a/ to /ɛ/ and centralise any other front vowels e.g.
zive /ziɥe/
- boat, absolutive
zivoe /ziɥɘ/ - boat, comitative
myaewntayn
/mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
myaewntaeyn /mʲɛuɴtɛiɴ/ - mountain, comitative
agirey /ʔagiʁei/ - agreement, absolutive
agiroey /ʔagiʁɘi/ - agreement, comitative
Last Vowel of Abs. Form is a Back Vowel
In this case, take the absolutive form, and suffix /pmu/ e.g.
tõn /tɔɴ/- change (as in coins, money), absolutive
tõnpmu /tɔɴpmu/ - change (as in coins, money), comitative
doleengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
doleengunpmu /doleːŋuɴpmu/ - dragon, comitative
paehoown /pɛχoːuɴ/ - dust, absolutive
paehoownpmu /pɛχoːuɴpmu/ - dust, comitative
yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, absolutive
yuenpiluypmu - /jɨɴpiluipmu/ - employee, comitative
Other Cases
If the last vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the comitative is formed differently. Here, it is formed by taking the ergative, deleting any final /ɴ/ or /ga/ that had been inserted as a suffix, and then suffixing /ʔu/ e.g.
'tùen /sitɨɴɦ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
'tin-gin /sɨtiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative
'tin-gi-u /sɨtiɴgiʔu/ - wound caused by a sting, comitative
teyláae
/teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive
teyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
teyláaesi-u /teilɛʔːsiʔu/ - shirt, comitative
péy /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
péykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative
péyki-u /peiʔkiʔu/ - book, comitative
`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
`kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
`kùezi-u /kɨɦziʔu/ - goods, comitative
`ròe /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive
`ròedun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative
`ròedu-u /ʁɘɦduʔu/ – red object, comitative
'ków /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive
'kówpin /kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
'kówpi-u /kouʔpiʔu/ - cup, comitative
péyláenkáe /peiʔlɛɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive
péyláenkáetun /peiʔlɛɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, comitative
péyláenkáetu-u /peiʔlɛɴʔkɛʔtuʔu/ - blanket, ergative
wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/ - frog, absolutive
wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiʔu/ - frog, ergative
wùerùgiqu /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, comitative
Pronominal Possession
Where English would use possessive pronouns (“my”, “your”), Antarctican uses possessive prefixes. The base forms of each are listed in the table below:
| Prefix | Usage |
|---|---|
| myi- /mʲi/ | 1st person singular, 1st person exclusive plural |
| yew- /jeu/ | 1st person inclusive plural |
| te- /te/ | 2nd person |
| wa- /wa/ | 3rd person, topicalised |
| si- /si/ | 3rd person, non-topicalised |
So, in the absolutive
case, “my frog” or “our frog” (not including you) would be myiwùerù /mʲiwɨɦʁuɦ/, “your frog” would be tiwùerù /tiwɨɦʁuɦ/ etc.
Phonation Spreading
However, if the noun has a floating phonation, this will spread onto the prefix, and often cause a vowel change in it as well (see the table in the phonology section for a list of changes) e.g.
`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive (not *myipùelùe)
tùepùelùe /tɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - your bridge, absolutive (not *tipùelùe)
Loss of Floating Phonation
However, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel changes to no longer have breathy or tense voice (i.e. it now has modal voice), then, if the floating phonation was the same as the what used to be on the vowel, then it is lost too e.g.
`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/- bridge, absolutive
bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive
myibilidlin /mʲibilidɮiɴ/ - my bridge, ergative
There are two exceptions to the above rule. The first is if the word begins with an ejective, in which case the ejectiveness is lost, but the floating phonation remains e.g.
'kqów
/kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive
'kuhlin /kuɬiɴ/ - a small amount, ergative
myéykuhlin /mʲeiʔkuɬiɴ/ - my small amount, ergative
The second is for words that begin with consonant pronounced with breathy voice (voiced consonant before a breathy voiced vowel) e.g.
`byùe /bʲɨɦ/ - mouth, absolutive
`byijin /bʲiɟiɴ/ - mouth, ergative
myùebyùe /mʲɨɦbʲɨɦ/ - my mouth, absolutive
`myùebyijin /mʲɨɦbʲiɟiɴ/ - my mouth, ergative
Prediction of Floating Phonation
As a rule, whether or not a noun has floating phonation cannot be predicted. The only time when it is possible to do so is for absolutive nouns, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel loses its breathy or tense phonation and becomes modally voiced. In this case, the rules are given below:
Sonorant Initial Stem
If the absolutive stem begins with a sonorant (nasal or approximant), and that sonorant becomes devoiced when the vowel after it acquires modal voice in the ergative form, then there is only ever modal floating phonation before it in both cases e.g.
màao /mɜɦː/ - betel nut, absolutive
pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative
myimàao /mʲimɜɦː/ - my betel nut, absolutive
Otherwise,
if a word begins with a sonorant, then it always has floating phonation that is the same as that on the first vowel e.g.
'máláeyáae /maʔlɛʔjɛːʔ/ - manners, absolutive
maleyooetun /malejɘːtuɴ/ - manners, ergative
'myéymáláeyáae /mʲeiʔmaʔlɛʔjɛːʔ/ - my manners, absolutive
Stem starts with /s/
If the absolutive stem begins with /s/, it can never have tense floating phonation e.g.
sásaechin /saʔsɛciɴ/ - stab wound, absolutive
myisásaechin /mʲisaʔsaɛciɴ/ - my stab wound, absolutive
In the case of absolutive nouns with breathy voice on the first vowel, if, in the ergative form, the initial /s/ becomes voiced /z/, then the word has breathy floating phonation e.g.
`sàomùe /sɜɦmɨɦ/ - (major) wife, absolutive
zamibyin /zamibʲiɴ/ - (major) wife, ergative
`myùesàomùe /mʲɨɦsɜɦmɨɦ/ - my (major) wife, absolutive (not *myisàomùe)
But if, in
the ergative form, the first vowel acquires modal voice but the initial
consonant stays as voiceless /s/, then in both the absolutive form and the ergative, there is floating modal phonation e.g.
sàopyùe /sɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
sabyishin /sabʲiçiɴ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), ergative
myisàopyùe /mʲisɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - my speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
Other stems
If the absolutive stem begins with another obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative) followed by a vowel with tense voice, and that obstruent stays voiceless even when followed by a modally voiced vowel (in the ergative form), then the absolutive form has tense floating phonation e.g.
'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive
toenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative
'myéytáen /mʲeiʔtɛɴʔ/ - my weather, absolutive
But if the obstruent becomes voiced, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
támá /taʔmaʔ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
damaesin /damaɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
myitámá /mʲitaʔmaʔ/ - my victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
And vice versa, if the absolutive form of a noun begins with a voicless obstruent followed by a breathy voiced vowel, and that vowel becomes voiced in the ergative form, then the absolutive form has floating breathy phonation e.g.
`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive
bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative
`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive
`pàoy /pɜiɦ/- baby, absolutive
baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative
`myùepàoy /mʲɨɦpɜiɦ/ - my baby, absolutive
And if the obstruent stays voiceless in the ergative form, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
pàoy /pɜiɦ/ - page, absolutive
paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative
myipàoy /mʲipɜiɦ/ - my page, absolutive
Nasalisation of Velar Initials
For some nouns that begin with /k/ or /g/, often it changes to /ŋ/ when the noun takes a prefix. e.g.
gali /gali/ - hole, absolutive
myingali /mʲiŋali/ - my hole, absolutive
In such a case, if the first vowel has tense or breathy voice, then it also has a floating phonation that is the same e.g.
`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
`myùengùe /mʲɨɦŋɨɦ/ - my goods, absolutive
'kéyváy /keiʔɥaiʔ/ - tongue, absolutive
'myéyngéyváy /mʲeiʔŋeiʔɥaiʔ/ - my tongue, absolutive
Possession by a Noun
Antarctican distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. Both are marked with prefixes on the possessed noun. These are wey- for alienable possession and nu- for inalienable possession (the possessor always takes the absolutive case). Note that floating phonation affects these prefixes in the same way as any other:
`kùeràotùu /kɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː/ - bone, absolutive
yini /jini/ - dog, absolutive
`wòeykùeràotùu yini /wɘiɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, alienable (i.e. the one that it eats, buries etc.)
`nùkùeràotùu yini /nuɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, inalienable (i.e. the one that is a part of it)
Where English would compound nouns together, or use one to modify another. Antarctican uses the alienable possessive construction e.g.
aaehaan
/ʔɛːχaːɴ/ - food, absolutive
wey-aaehaan yini /weiʔɛːχaːɴ jini/ - dog food, absolutive
Reciprocal Possession
In Antarctican, there is no singular vs. plural marking. However, some nouns that imply a relationship (e.g. friend, brother, enemy, coworker), have special forms to indicate a pair or group of people / things where that relationship is reciprocal e.g. where English would say “They are friends / brothers / enemies / coworkers (of each other)”.
These forms are generally constructed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, in the same “slot” where possession would be marked e.g.
biraza /biʁaza/ - brother, absolutive
bibiraza /bibiʁaza/ - brothers (of each other), absolutive
yeruy /jeʁui/ - ally, absolutive
yeyeruy /jejeʁui/ - allies (of each other), absolutive
However, the inserted syllable cannot have a long vowel, a diphthong, or end in /ɴ/. If it would do so then it is truncated e.g.
doolaa /doːlaː/ - coworker, absolutive
dodoolaa /dodoːlaː/ - coworkers (of each other), absolutive
nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
nanayba /nanaiba/ - neighbours (of each other), absolutive
'kówntátu /kouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive
'kókówntátu /koʔkouɴʔtaʔtu/– acquaintances (of each other), absolutive
The voicing of the vowel of the reduplication is determined by what floating phonation the noun has e.g.
sátozii /saʔtoziː/ – enemy, absolutive
myisátozii /mʲisaʔtoziː/ – my enemy, absolutive
sasátozii /sasaʔtoziː/ - enemies (of each other), absolutive
`rùy /ʁuiɦ/- rival, absolutive
`myùerùy /mʲɨɦʁuiɦ/ - my rival, absolutive
`rùrùy /ʁuɦʁuiɦ/ - rivals (of each other), absolutive
firendun /fiʁeɴduɴ/ – friend, ergative
myuefirendun /mʲɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – my friend, ergative
fuefirendun /fɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – friends (of each other), ergative
A few nouns have irregular reciprocal possessive forms e.g.
wùeròen /wɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friend, absolutive
fiwùeròen /fiwɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
These arise from when the first vowel has breathy or tense voice, but the first consonant is underlyingly a voiced obstruent or a prestopped nasal. These can only occur before modally voiced vowels, and are thus modified before the vowel with breathy or tense voice. But if word has floating modal phonation, then the vowel there will have modal voice and the underlying consonant will surface there.