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Bhadhagha (native name Bhadhagha /bʰadʰagʰa/; bhadhagha is from a Camalic language) is a close relative of Eivo spoken on Bhadhagha Island off the west of Western Etalocin. It's inspired by Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Sanskrit.

Bhadhagha grammar was created by User:Praimhín.

Todo

• Lanna srasandhacht de h-aofrann cheallò = I'm a specialist in cello playing
• 's laobh = is there? (interrogative)
• camhna, sos, car = woman, man, person
• dèic (VN), deàmha (present tense, nonpronominal subject) = eat

Phonology

Based on "literally read Irish".

Consonants

		Labial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	plain	m m	n n
	geminate		nn nː
	aspirated	mh mʱ	nh nʱ
Stop	tenuis	p p	t t		c k
	aspirated	ph pʰ	th tʰ		ch kʰ
	prenasalized	bp ᵐp	dt ⁿt		gc ᵑk
	voiced	b b	d d		g g
	breathy voiced	bh bʱ	dh dʱ		gh gʱ
	voiced prenasalized	mb ᵐb	nd ⁿd		ng ᵑg
Fricative	plain	f f	s s			h h
	aspirated	fh fʰ	sh sʰ
	prenasalized	mhf mʱf	nhs nʱs
Liquid	plain		l l	r r̠
	geminate		ll lː	rr r̠ː
	breathy voiced		lh lʱ	rh r̠ʱ

Mutations

Lenition: Initials "lenite" as in Irish orthography, but null initials get an h-. All possible initials lenite: i.e. initial n, l, r, sp, st, sc are also "lenited" to nh, lh, rh, sph, sth, sch /nʰ, lʰ, rʰ, spʰ, stʰ, skʰ/.

Eclipsis: Initials "eclipse" as in Irish orthography, but s (if not in one of sp-, st-, sc-) also eclipses to nhs-.

Vowels

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i /i/	ì /iː/			u /u/	ù /uː/
Mid	e /e/	è /eː/			o /o/	ò /oː/
Open			a /a/	à /aː/

Diphthongs are all read as written.

a in an unstressed syllable becomes e if the previous vowel ends in an /i/.

Morphology

Pronouns

	Singular	Plural
1	nà	àmh
2 (familiar)	hiar	sèid
2 (polite)	Sthàna
3 (masculine)	u	àr
3 (feminine)	i
3 (inanimate)	ci

Prepositions

Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun Sthàna is not fused with the preposition, however.

The sequences le + an and de + an contract to len /lɛn/ and den /dɛn/.

The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.

Inflection of prepositions

	me	you (sg.)	him	her	it	us	you (pl.)	them	relative
ar 'on'	arainn	arais	or	ari	arè	arad	arac	arar	aram
de-L, d'- 'in, at'	dèinn	dèis	diù	dì	dè	diad	diac	diar	diam
ful 'around'	fulainn	fulais	fulu	fuili	fulè	fulad	fulac	fular	fulam
geil 'from'	geilinn	geilis	gela	geili	geilè	geilid	geilic	geilir	geilim
go 'with'	guainn	gòis	gù	guì	gè	guad	guac	guar	guam
le 'to'	linn	leis	leo	lèi	lè	liod	lioc	lior	liom
nae 'with (instrumental)'	naìnn	naìs	nae	naì	nè	naed	naec	naer	naem
ri 'of'	rìnn	rìs	riù	rì	rè	rìod	rìoc	rìor	rìom

Nouns

The plural of nouns is always -a if the noun ends in a C, or -n if the noun ends in a V. There are some irregular plurals:

• sos 'man', sois 'men'

Bhadhagha lost grammatical gender.

The definite article is an-L for singular nouns and na-N for plural nouns. Colloquial Bhadhagha may drop the definite article in the singular (leaving behind just the lenition), and also in the plural (leaving behind the eclipsis) if the initial C of the noun is "eclipsable" (i.e. is one of ∅, p, t, c, b, d, g, f, s). If the noun cannot eclipse, the na is always used. Personal names and place names do not undergo lenition, however.

The Thensarian relativizer rin turned into a genitive marker: (an) schain ri Aodhàn (Aodhàn's friend). It can be omitted in casual Bhadhagha: schain Aodhàn.

Adjectives

Adjectives inflect similarly to nouns.

Attributive adjectives agree in mutation with the noun if the noun is definite. For example: "a black cat" is eafhad flumh and "the black cat" is (an) h-eafhad fhlumh.

Copula

Bhadhagha has a copula laidh which inflects as follows:

Present tense: lanna, lair, lù, laì, lac, lamh, laid, lar, laobh -- and laidh for nonpronominal subjects

Past tense: g'lanna, g'lair, g'lù, g'laì, g'lac, g'lamh, g'laid, g'lar, g'laobh -- and g'laidh for nonpronominal subjects

Future tense: lathanna, lathair, ...

Examples: Lanna dùbhòinn (I'm a teacher), Lù ìon (It's blue)

As in Welsh, the copula is also used with progressive verbs:

Laidh (an) dhùbhòinn d'èinteach. (The teacher is sleeping.)

Lamh de nachtach fhòdhan. (We're hunting the game.)

Verbs

The Bhadhagha verbal system is very different from that of Old Bhadhagha. A modern Bhadhagha verb has only three principal parts: the present analytic, the future analytic, and the verbal noun.

Bhadhagha analogized the analytic forms of verbs to all persons, and fused the personal pronoun with the verb:

molaigh ná -> molanna "I thank"
molaigh fiar -> molair "thou thankest"
molaigh hú -> molù "he thanks"
molaigh hí -> molaì "she thanks"
molaigh cé -> molac "it thanks"
molaigh -> molaigh or mola "... thanks" (with nonpronominal subjects)
molaigh gámh -> molamh "we thank" (both exc. and inc.!)
molaigh séid -> molaid "ye thank"
molaigh hár -> molar "they thank"
molaigh mé -> molam "... who/that thank(s)"
Impersonal: molaobh "one thanks"

The past tense is marked by a séimhiú on the verb as in Irish, except that the suffixes are the same as in the present tense. This comes from a construction that translates to "it was the case that ...". Even non-lenitable consonants get aspirated in casual Bhadhagha, though in the written language a particle is used when the first consonant isn't lenitable.

The future tense is derived from the Old Bhadhagha future tense:

moltanna, moltair, moltù, moltaì, moltac, moltamh, moltaid, moltar, moltam, moltaobh

The verbal noun is extremely irregular in Bhadhagha. One somewhat common way of deriving verbal nouns is with a prefix (ao+N) but other verbal nouns may use the suffixes -ach, -t, -ta/-te, or -st. Verbs loaned from Camalic simply use the stem as the verbal noun. Some verbal nouns are suppletive.

Perfect tenses use the construction tainn ('after', often pronounced tann) followed by the verbal noun.

Verbs are negated with cha or chan. In the past tense, cha do-L is used.

The imperative uses the bare present tense stem; imperative sentences are in the form verb + object.

Syntax

Bhadhagha is a head-initial, topic-comment language with V2 order. It is wh-in-situ.

Faulty accusative

The "faulty accusative" (as in Modern Standard Arabic) particle is am, which is used for both definite and indefinite nouns. It is inserted before a noun after a head verb when there's a phrase between the head verb and the noun.

For example:

Shos h-aonca tua am u? (The head is h-aonca; am is used because there is tua between h-aonca and u.)

DEF.man PST-feed-NPRO who AM he

Who fed the man?

Compare (with no am):

Shos laidh tua tann aoncach ___ u? (The head is aoncach)

DEF.man COP who after feed-VN he

Who has fed the man?

Shos h-aoncù ___ tua? (The head is h-aoncù)

DEF.man PST-feed-he who

Whom did the man feed?

Topic-prominence

The man thanks the teacher = Shos molù dhùbhòinn (lit. the man, he thanks the teacher), or Dhùbhòinn mola shos am u (lit. the teacher, the man thanks him)

The teacher thanks the man = Dhùbhòinn molù shos (lit. the teacher, he thanks the man), or Shos mola dhùbhòinn am u (lit. the man, the teacher thanks him)

Relative clauses

Relative clauses work similarly. The resumptive pronoun mi is used to refer back to the head of the relative clause.

Dhùbhòinn ri mhola shos am mi - The teacher who the man thanked (lit: the teacher REL the man thanked RES)

Dhùbhòinn ri mholam shos - The teacher who thanked the man (lit: the teacher REL RES thanked the man)

Shois ri h-aoncam àr - The men who fed them (lit: the men REL RES fed them)

Shois ri h-aoncar mi - The men who they fed (lit: the men REL they fed RES)

Non-restrictive relative clauses are not syntactically much different from independent clauses. The structure of a sentence with a non-restrictive relative clause is: HEAD (topicalized) with a comment that is just like an independent clause.

Dependent clauses

Complement clauses

The complementizer is mhfa (often pronounced mha); complement clauses, by default, are VSO and have no topic.

Linn càid mhfa dheàmha shaobh ri Praimhìn am shmodh.

I know that Praimhìn's dog ate the bone.

It is not impossible to topicalize in a complement clause however:

Ducnanna mhfa Shèinimh lac nòs ag Rhostairimh lac nuighil.

I think Chick Corean is easy whereas Roshterian is hard.

One can also use le + subject to introduce a complement clause:

Thobha Aladh liù am chrìgh.

Aladh said he had gone.

Vocabulary

Bhadhagha vocabulary includes many Camalic loans. An example of a Camalic word in Bhadhagha is eafhad (cat).

Example texts

The North Wind and the Sun

[to be edited]

Bhòlcoll ag h-Unn