Is Burunking
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Is Burunking (/is buɾˈuŋkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean.
Background
Phonology
Consonants
Bilabial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
Plosive | p b | t d | k g | ||||
Fricative | ɸ | s | ʃ | ʐ | ç | h | |
Affricate | t͡ʃ d͡ʒ | ||||||
Flap or tap | ɾ | ||||||
Approximant | w | j | |||||
Lateral app. | l |
Vowels
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i | u |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ |
Open | a |
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in eekez 'left' /ɛːkɛz/. Note that word-initial sequences of i + i and u + uu are written yi-, -wu.
Diphthongs
There are six diphthongs proper: ai /ai/, ei /ei/, oi /oi/, au /au/, eu /eu/ and ou /ou/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.
Phonotactics
Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are restrictions on the other elements also:
C1 | G | V1 | V2 | C2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
The word-final consonants s, sh, ng and z are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:
- Final -s is lost, the preceding vowel lengthens and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: is 'language, speech' + -do (pejorative) = yito 'curse', os 'cold' + -pung (abstract) = oopung 'coldness'.
- Final -sh is replaced by -i-, forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel (ush > oi, ish > ei, ii), and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: banash 'fruit' + -to (diminutive) = banaito 'berry', ush 'empty' + gyong 'person' = oikyong 'vain person'.
- Final -ng becomes -n- (or -m before p, b, f): gyong 'person' + -zoi (collective) = gyonzoi 'team, band', yong 'smooth' + -pung (abstract) = yompung 'smoothness'.
- Final -z is lost entirely: az 'man' + -chi (adjectival) = achi 'masculine'.
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings. In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. arato 'food' + -oi (adjectival) = aratoi 'gluttonous', eshayo 'sea' + ugi 'bread' = eshayugi 'seaweed'. Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. binji 'mountain' + arate 'gap' = binjarate 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of i or u e.g. bigi 'eye' + uz 'water' = bigyuz. In reduplication, the final vowel often remains in disyllables, e.g. aze-aze 'very dark'.
Stress
Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. berósu 'nine', esháyo 'sea', ázeng 'fish'.
Orthography
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called hookozoi, mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.
When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.
Graph | IPA |
---|---|
Consonants | |
b | /b/ |
ch | /t͡ʃ/ |
d | /d/ |
f | /ɸ/ |
g | /g/ |
h | /h/ |
j | /d͡ʒ/ |
k | /k/ |
l | /l/ |
m | /m/ |
n | /n/ |
ng | /ŋ/ |
p | /p/ |
r | /r/ |
s | /s/ |
sh | /ʃ/ |
t | /t/ |
w | /w/ |
x | /ç/ |
y | /j/ |
Vowels | |
a | /a/ |
e | /ɛ/ |
i | /i/ |
o | /ɔ/ |
u | /u/ |
Diphthongs | |
ai | /ai/ |
au | /au/ |
ei | /ei/ |
eu | /eu/ |
oi | /oi/ |
ou | /ou/ |
In word or syllable initial position the sequences ii, uu are written yi, wu. The glide /j/ is always written y but /w/ is written u following a consonant and w syllable initially.
Grammar
Nouns
Gender
Nouns are classified as either animate (bixi) or inanimate (ee bixi) and animate nouns belong to one of three genders: masculine (achi), feminine (buyachi) or common (iriji). Inclusion within a class is based to a large extent on natural gender.
Animate Bixi |
Masculine Achi |
|
---|---|---|
Feminine Buyachi |
| |
Common Iriji |
| |
Inanimate Ee Bixi |
|
These gender distinctions have a limited effect on the morphology of nouns themselves but affect the way other words behave.
Case
Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun.
Case | Particle | Uses |
---|---|---|
Topicaliser | ba | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance |
Nominative | az | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic) |
Accusative | ke | marks the direct object of a verb |
Genitive | eng | marks the possessor of an object, 'of' |
Dative | ni | marks the indirect object of a verb, 'to' |
Allative | a | marks movement towards, 'to' |
Ablative | chi | marks movement away from, 'from, of, through' |
Locative | gang | marks location 'in, on, at' |
Instrumental | ha | marks use of, 'with, by' |
Number
Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether heuji means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. bade oz 'one dog, a dog'.
There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: -zoi is used to refer to a group of things, usually within a single place, e.g. gyonzoi 'band, group, team of people', heujizoi 'a herd of horses'; -bua is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. gyombua 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', binjibua 'mountains'. Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in azoi 'council, assembly' from az 'man'. Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. gyongyong 'crowd, mass of people', yaiyai 'storm' (from yai 'wind').
Adjectives
Pronouns
Personal
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | inclusive | ni | bua |
exclusive | bu | ||
2 | yi | fu | |
3 | masculine | ngane | xinxing |
feminine | nepa | ||
common |
There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronouns being used instead.
Possessives may be formed with the postposition go, e.g. ni go yata 'my father', xing go eshe 'its house'. The phrase go buru is used with the pronouns to create reflexive pronouns, e.g. yi go buru 'yourself',
Demonstrative
this | waz |
---|---|
that (non-distal) | uri |
that (distal) | az |
The demonstratives may be used attributively following the noun, e.g. az waz 'this man', xagaz uri 'that apple', binji az 'that mountain'. With uki they form the equivalent adverbs of place: uki waz 'here', uki uri 'there', uki az 'there (distal)'.
Interrogative
Interrogative pronouns and adverbs are formed with the prefix n(o)- and a nominal element:
what | nohez |
---|---|
who | nogyong |
where | nuki |
how | nobide |
why | nonaze |
when | neuji |
These interrogatives may take postpositions such as nogyong go 'whose'
Indefinite
Indefinite pronouns are formed using the same nominal elements as the interrogative pronouns, but with different affixes.
some- (-do) |
any- (eno-) |
every- (-bua) | |
---|---|---|---|
-thing | hedo | enohez | hebua |
-one, -body | gyondo | enogyong | gyombua |
-where | ukido | enuki | ukibua |
-how | bidedo | enobide | bidebua |
(reason) | nazedo | enonaze | nazebua |
-time | eujido | eneuji | eujibua |
The 'any-' forms are also used as the equivalent of English pronouns with '-ever', e.g. enobide 'however', enogyong 'whoever'. They are also employed in negative sentences to mean 'no-one', 'nowhere' etc.
Verbs
Verbs fall into two categories: primary verbs are those which are not derived from other parts of speech, and are relatively few in number and secondary verbs are compounds of a primary verb with another part of speech.
Primary Verbs
Primary verbs consist of a prefix and a root. In the base form of the verb, the prefix is e-, i- or y- and bears no particular meaning. The following are the main primary verbs:
eba | cut, chop, hew | exaz | enter, penetrate, go in |
ebang | give, transfer, exchange, connect | exoz | beget, produce, create |
ebei | assemble, collect, gather | eyeki | stand |
ebeng | put, place, establish | iji | show; appear |
egaa | get, obtain, win; understand | ibii | move (without reference to path), travel |
egang | ascend, go up, climb; improve | iging | make, do |
egong | stay, wait, continue, remain, rest | ilu | die, break, stop, cease |
egos | shoot, throw, cast | iluaz | spread, scatter, distribute, disperse |
egosh | heat, cook, boil | ilung | have, hold, contain, use, enjoy |
ekash | learn | inua | (make) sound, speak |
elaz | divide, split, undo | ipush | perceive, know, see |
ero | hit, strike | izung | expel, defecate, throw out |
esuang | lie down | yang | consume, eat, take in |
etoz | come, move towards (speaker) | yata | happen, occur |
ewang | go, move away from (speaker) | yehang | be, exist, live |
ewas | step, pace, tread | yosh | pierce, stab, puncture |
ewash | descend | yuki | exit, leave, go out of |
eresh | squeeze, press | yus | move away, leave, go away |
ewaging | approach, reach, come near to; touch |
The base prefix is lost in composition, e.g. yipupush "touch, feel" < yipu + ipush. It may be replaced by era- (ra- in composition) to indicate a causative, e.g. eralu "cause to die, kill". An intensive or frequentative sense is obtained by reduplicating all or part of the root, e.g. yangang "devour", etotoz "rush towards".
Secondary Verbs
Secondary forms make up the vast majority of verb forms in Is Burunking. They may be composed of a primary verb preceded by a noun, adjective, adverb or another primary verb.
Conjugation
Verbs are conjugated largely by means of particles that follow the main verb. Verbs may express the following:
- Tense: present or non-present
- Mood: indicative, hypothetical, imperative
- Aspect: imperfective or perfective
- Valency: transitive, intransitive or causative.
The verb stem, whether primary or secondary, is considered imperfective in sense. A perfective sense is indicated by adding the suffix -i to the stem, e.g. yang "eats, eating" > yangi "ate", inuapush "asks, asking" > inuapushi "asked".
There are two main sets of particles to indicate tense, mood and valency: da particles are used with intransitive verbs and zu particles with transitive and causative verbs. Each set has a different particle for present and past indicative, hypothetical and imperative. These are placed directly after the main verb, e.g. yang zu "is eating", erayekii fong "was building".
Function | Intransitive | Transitive |
---|---|---|
Present | da | zu |
Past | heng | fong |
Hypothetical | li | lu |
Imperative | bii | byo |
Other particles may precede the main particle, giving further shades of meaning. These are usually joined with a hyphen, e.g. ngane ka etoz au-da? "will he come?"
Particle | Meaning | Uses |
---|---|---|
ee | negative | negates any verb, e.g. nepa ka ilui ee-heng "she did not die" |
au | interrogative | asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. yi ka ewang au-da? "are you going?" |
te | uncertainty | expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ngane ka loging te-da "perhaps he is sleeping" |
meng | hearsay | indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ngange ka loging meng-da "I heard he is sleeping" |
ba | "if" | indicates the conditional, e.g. yi ewang ba-da "if you are going". |
Postpositions
Derivation
Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.
Suffix | Use | Example |
---|---|---|
Adjectives | ||
-chi | of, like, pertaining to | buyachi 'feminine, female' |
-fu | full of, covered with, made of | uzefu 'golden' |
-king | of, like, pertaining to | Burunking 'of Burung' |
-oi | tending to, fond of | aratoi 'gluttonous' |
Nouns | ||
-bua | collective, abstract | bidebua 'route' |
-daz | person or thing from | eshayodaz 'foreigner' (lit. sea-dweller) |
-do | pejorative | izido 'mocking laughter' |
-ko | instrument, person connected with | onuuko 'goatherder' |
-le | agent | erole 'killer' |
-no | diminutive (often pejorative) | ano 'coward' |
-pung | abstracts states, conditions | buchipung 'smallness' |
-te | continual or chronic states | izite 'sickness' |
-to | diminutive | hizito 'piglet' |
-zoi | collective, group | eshezoi 'settlement' |
Syntax
Vocabulary
Kinship Terms
Kinship terms are relatively straightforward in Is Burunking, showing fewer distinctions than in English. Within the family structure there are three degrees of proximity: the first is an individual's direct bloodline, both ancestors and direct descendants; the second includes closely related blood relatives (aunts, nephews etc.); and the third any more distantly related blood relatives or relatives by marriage. Within these three vertical groups, distinctions are then made by generation, and, in older generations only by gender.
1st Degree | 2nd Degree | 3rd Degree | |
---|---|---|---|
Gen. +2 | grandfather: dada grandmother: baba |
other older collateral relative: asaba | |
Gen +1 | father: yata mother: ama |
parent's brother: xoba parent's sister: xeba parent's sibling (iriji): hanauba father-in-law, step-father: neba mother-in-law, step-mother: aneepa | |
Gen. 0 | EGO: NI | husband: xengaz wife: buya older sibling: angane younger sibling: azeba |
other same-generation relative: angade |
Gen. -1 | child: omba | nephew/niece: yoba step-child, son/daughter-in-law: ezang |
other younger collateral relative: xuni |
Gen. -2 | grandchild: xemba |