Proto-Tungric
Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.
Introduction
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric has the following features:
- Lacks merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
- Stress rules similar to Classical Latin
- Lacks Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a-stems
Masculine or neuter.
| *akraz m. "field" | *juką n. "yoke" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *akraz | *akrōz, -ōs | *juką | *jukō |
| Vocative | *akr | |||
| Accusative | *akrą | *akranz | ||
| Genitive | *akrī, -as | *akrǭ | *jukī, -as | *jukǭ |
| Dative | *akrōi | *akraiz | *jukōi | *jukaiz |
| Instrumental | *akrô | *jukô | ||
ō-stems
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
| *þauþō f. "people" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þauþō | *þauþōz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *þauþǭ | *þauþōnz |
| Genitive | *þauþōz | *þaudōsą |
| Dative | *þauþōi | *þaudōbiz |
| Instrumental | *þauþô | |
Additionally, there is a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns take the ending -ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations have the regular ō-stem endings preceded by -(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
i-stems
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
| *minþiz f. "mind" | *mari n. "sea" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *minþiz | *minþēz | *mari | *marjō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *minþį | *minþinz | ||
| Genitive | *minþīz | *minþijǭ | *marīz | *marjǭ |
| Dative | *minþī | *minþibiz | *marī | *maribiz |
| Instrumental | *minþî | *marî | ||
Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.
u-stems
May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.
| *farþuz m. "port" | *harnu n. "horn" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *farþuz | *farþawiz | *harnu | *harnuwō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *farþų | *farþunz | ||
| Genitive | *farþauz | *farþuwǭ | *harnauz | *harnuwǭ |
| Dative | *farþawī | *farþubiz | *harnawī | *harnubiz |
| Instrumental | *farþû | *harnû | ||
n-stems
Any gender. Masculine and feminine are conjugated the same. Feminine n-stems are rare, since most original cases were reformed to ōn-stems.
| *gemô m. "man" | *namô n. "name" | *ankwô n. "fat, grease" | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *gemô | *giminiz | *namô | *namnō | *ankwô | *anwinō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *giminį | *gimininz | ||||
| Genitive | *giminiz | *giminǭ | *namniz | *namnǭ | *ankwiniz | *ankwinǭ |
| Dative | *giminī | *gimimbiz | *namnī | *namnibiz | *ankwinī | *ankwimbiz |
| Instrumental | *gimini | *namni | *ankwini | |||
Note:
- Neuter nouns may be declined either as *namô or *ankwô. Generally, neuter nouns ending in *-mô follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.
- Some n-stems have an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative ending).
- n-stems whose nominative singular end in *-ijô or -jô have *-īn- and *-in- respectively instead of expected **-ijin- or **-jin-.
ōn-stems
Masculine or feminine.
| *ahtijō f. "action" | ||
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahtijô | *ahtijōniz |
| Vocative | ||
| Accusative | *ahtijōnį | *ahtijōninz |
| Genitive | *ahtijōniz | *ahtijōnǭ |
| Dative | *ahtijōnī | *ahtijōmbiz |
| Instrumental | *ahtijōni | |
r-stems
Masculine or feminine
| *mōþēr f. "mother" | *hanþōr m. "singer" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mōþēr | *mōþriz | *hanþōr | *hanþriz |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *mōþrį | *mōþrinz | *hanþrį | *hanþrinz |
| Genitive | *mōþriz | *mōþrǭ | *hanþriz | *hanþrǭ |
| Dative | *mōþrī | *mōþribiz | *hanþrī | *hanþribiz |
| Instrumental | *mōþri | *hanþri | ||
z-stems
| *amōz m. "love" | *þimfaz n. "time" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *amōz | *amaziz | *þimfaz | *þimfizō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *amazį | *amazinz | ||
| Genitive | *amaziz | *amazǭ | *þimfiziz | *þimfizǭ |
| Dative | *amazī | *amazibiz | *þimfizī | *þimbizibiz |
| Instrumental | *amazi | *þimfizi | ||
Consonant stems
| *feþs m. "foot" | *hafud n. "head" | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *feþs | *fiþiz | *hafud | *hafudō |
| Vocative | ||||
| Accusative | *fiþį | *fiþinz | ||
| Genitive | *fiþiz | *feþǭ | *hafudiz | *hafudǭ |
| Dative | *fiþī | *fiþibiz | *hafudī | *habuþibiz |
| Instrumental | *fiþi | *hafudi | ||
Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular is *-s (which often leads to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there is usually no suffix. However, there are many nouns that are irregular in these forms.
Adjectives
An adjective can be strong or weak. The class of an adjective is determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation is originally from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.
a/ō-stem adjectives
| *twenaz "good" | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Strong | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenaz | *twenai | *twenō | *twenōi | *tweną, -at | *twenō |
| Accusative | *twenan | *twenanz | *twenǭ | *twenōnz | ||
| Genitive | *twenas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenōz, *twenazjōz | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą | *twenas, *twenazjas | *twenōsą, *twenazjōsą |
| Dative | *twenammai | *twenabiz | *twenōz | *twenōbiz | *twenammai | *twenabiz |
| Instrumental | *twenô | *twenô | *twenô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative/ Vocative |
*twenô | *twininiz | *twenô | *twenōniz | *twenô | *twininō |
| Accusative | *twininį | *twinininz | *twenōnį | *twenōniz | ||
| Genitive | *twininiz | *twininǭ | *twenōniz | *twenōnǭ | *twininiz | *twininǭ |
| Dative | *twininī | *twinimbiz | *twenōnī | *twenōmbiz | *twininī | *twinimbiz |
| Instrumental | *twinini | *twenōni | *twinini | |||
ja/jō-stem adjectives
These are a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a -j- or -ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and are declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected -iji- becomes -ī- and -ji- becomes -i-.
i-stem adjectives
These are declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-iz and -į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular may take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.
Consonant-stem adjectives
These are declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-s and *- respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.
Pronouns
First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns
| First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||
| Nominative | *ekō, *ikō | *nōs, *nōz | *þū | *wōs, *wōz | — |
| Accusative | *mē | *þē | *sē | ||
| Genitive | *mīz | *nasterą | *þīz | *wasterą | *sīz |
| Dative | *migī | *nōbiz | *þibī | *wōbiz | *sibī |
| Instrumental | *met, *mit | *þet, *þit | *set, *sit | ||
| Possessive adj. | *mijaz | *nasteraz | *þawaz | *wasteraz | *sawaz |
Notes:
- When two forms are given, the first is stressed and the second is unstressed.
- Possessive adjectives are always strong.
3rd person pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *iz | *ijai | *ijō | *ijōi | *it | *ijō |
| Accusative | *in | *ijanz | *ijǭ | *ijōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izjas | *izjōsą | *izjōz | *izjōsą | *izjas | *izjōsą |
| Dative | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz | *izjōz | *izjōiz, *izjōbiz | *immai | *izjaiz, izjabiz |
| Instrumental | *izjô | *izjô | *izjô | |||
Reflexive/Intensive pronoun
| Strong | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsaz | *safsai | *safsō | *safsōi | *safsą, *safsat | *safsō |
| Accusative | *safsan | *safsanz | *safsǭ | *safsōnz | ||
| Genitive | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsōz, *safsazjōz | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą | *safsas, *safsazjas | *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą |
| Dative | *safsammai | *safsabiz | *safsōz | *safsōbiz | *safsammai | *safsabiz |
| Instrumental | *safsô | *safsô | *safsô | |||
| Weak | ||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *safsô | *safsiniz | *safsô | *safsōniz | *safsô | *safsinō |
| Accusative | *safsinį | *safsininz | *safsōnį | *safsōniz | ||
| Genitive | *safsiniz | *safsinǭ | *safsōniz | *safsōnǭ | *safsiniz | *safsinǭ |
| Dative | *safsinī | *safsimbiz | *safsōnī | *safsōmbiz | *safsinī | *safsimbiz |
| Instrumental | *safsini | *safsōni | *safsini | |||
Neutral demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *saz | *sai | *sō | *sōi | *sat | *sō |
| Accusative | *san | *sanz | *sǭ | *sōnz | ||
| Genitive | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sōz, *sazjōz | *sōsą, *sazjōsą | *sas, *sazjas | *sōsą, *sazjōsą |
| Dative | *sammai | *sabiz | *sōz | *sōbiz | *sammai | *sabiz |
| Instrumental | *sô | *sô | *sô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *izaz | *izai | *izō | *izōi | *izat | *izō |
| Accusative | *izan | *izanz | *izǭ | *izōnz | ||
| Genitive | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izōz, *izazjōz | *izōsą, *izazjōsą | *izas, *izazjas | *izōsą, *izazjōsą |
| Dative | *izammai | *izabiz | *izōz | *izōbiz | *izammai | *izabiz |
| Instrumental | *izô | *izô | *izô | |||
Near demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *istaz | *istai | *istō | *istōi | *istat | *istō |
| Accusative | *istan | *istanz | *istǭ | *istōnz | ||
| Genitive | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istōz, *istazjōz | *istōsą, *istazjōsą | *istas, *istazjas | *istōsą, *istazjōsą |
| Dative | *istammai | *istabiz | *istōz | *istōbiz | *istammai | *istabiz |
| Instrumental | *istô | *istô | *istô | |||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *gehaz | *gehai | *gehō | *gehōi | *gehat | *gehō |
| Accusative | *gehan | *gehanz | *gehǭ | *gehōnz | ||
| Genitive | *gehas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gehōz, *gegazjōz | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą | *gehas, *gegazjas | *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą |
| Dative | *gegammai | *gehabiz | *gehōz | *gegōbiz | *gegammai | *gehabiz |
| Instrumental | *gehô | *gehô | *gehô | |||
Far demonstrative
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *allaz | *allai | *allō | *allōi | *allat | *allō |
| Accusative | *allan | *allanz | *allǭ | *allōnz | ||
| Genitive | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allōz, *allazjōz | *allōsą, *allazjōsą | *allas, *allazjas | *allōsą, *allazjōsą |
| Dative | *allammai | *allabiz | *allōz | *allōbiz | *allammai | *allabiz |
| Instrumental | *allô | *allô | *allô | |||
Interrogative pronoun
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *hwai | *hwēz | *hwōi | *hwēz | *hwat | *hwō |
| Accusative | *hwan | *hwanz | *hwǭ | *hwōnz | ||
| Genitive | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwōz, *hwazjōz | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą | *hwas, *hwazjas | *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą |
| Dative | *hwammai | *hwabiz | *hwōz | *hwōbiz | *hwammai | *hwabiz |
| Instrumental | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | *hwô, *hwî | |||
Numerals
| # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | Multiplier |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | *frīsimaz | *semēlą | *simflaz, *singilaz |
| 2 | *twō | *alþeraz | *twis | *twiflaz |
| 3 | *þrēz | *þriþjô | *þris | *þriflaz |
| 4 | *hwettwōr | *hwetarþô | *hwetris | *hwetriflaz |
| 5 | *hwinhw | *hwinhtô | ||
| 6 | *sehs | *sehstô | ||
| 7 | *siftį | *siftimô | ||
| 8 | *ahtō | *ahtô | ||
| 9 | *nawį | *naunô | ||
| 10 | *tihį | *tigimô | ||
| 11 | *ainatigį | *ainatigimô | ||
| 12 | *twatigį | *twatigimô | ||
| 13 | *þritigį | *þritigimô | ||
| 14 | *hwettwōrtigį | *hwettwōrtigimô | ||
| 15 | *hwinhtigį | *hwinhtigimô | ||
| 16 | *sehstigį | *sehstigimô | ||
| 17 | *siftintigį | *siftintigimô | ||
| 18 | *ahtōtigį | *ahtōtigimô | ||
| 19 | *nawintigį | *nawintigimô | ||
| 20 | *wīginþī | *wīginsô | ||
| 30 | *þrīginþō | *þrīginsô | ||
| 40 | *hwatrōginþō | *hwatrōginsô | ||
| 50 | *hwinhwōginþō | *hwinhwōginsô | ||
| 60 | *sehsōginþō | *sehsōginsô | ||
| 70 | *seftumōginþō | *seftumōginsô | ||
| 80 | *ahtōginþō | *ahtōginsô | ||
| 90 | *naunōginþō | *naunōginsô | ||
| 100 | *hinþą | *hinsô | ||
| 1000 | *smīgislī | *smīgislidô |
Notes:
- *ainaz "one" is declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
- *twō "two" is declined as below:
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *twō, *twai | *twōi | *twō |
| Accusative | *twanz | *twōnz | *twō |
| Genitive | *twōsą | ||
| Dative | *twōbaz | ||
| Instrumental | *twô | ||
- *þrēz "three" is declined similarly to a plural i-stem noun.
- Numbers from 4-99 are undeclined (except for two digit numbers above 20 that end in 1, 2, or 3).
- *hinþą "hundred" is declined as a neuter noun.
- *smīgislī "thousand" is declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
- Ordinal numbers are declined as either strong or weak adjectives (as per the endings in the table). Most are weak except for 1st and 2nd.
Verbs
Strong verbs
Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings in the indicative:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ai | -istai | -id | -amaz | -istiz | -ēri |
The past stem is also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel -i-.
Strong verbs can be put into classes depending on how the past stem is formed:
- Class 1: This class has a present stem vowel of -i-. It has two subclasses:
- a. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"
- b. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"
- Class 2: This class has a present stem vowel of -u- which changes to -au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
- Class 3: This class has a present stem vowel of -a-, -e-, or -i- that becomes -ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
- Class 4: This class has a present stem vowel -a- that becomes -ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
- Class 5: The past stem has the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
- Class 6: The past stem is derived from the present stem by adding -s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
- Class 7: The past stem is formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there may also be a vowel change (usually -e/i- to -a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
- Irregular: The past stem is formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"
Some strong verbs have irregular presents. This affects the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There are three types of irregularities, and they can co-occur:
- A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and may be light or heavy. This affects the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it does in nouns and adjectives.
- An nasal infix. This does not affect the verb's endings, but affects the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
- A vowel suffix (usually -ō- or -ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugate similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There is also the exceptional verb *stêsi which has the suffix -ê-.
The past participle of strong verbs is formed with the suffix -þaz which, depending on the verb, may become -taz, -daz, or -saz. There may or may not be a connector vowel. If there is one, it is usually -a- (or -i- in the case of j-presents.
Example (class 3): *akizi "to do, act"
| Infinitive | *akizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *akinþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *ahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *akjō | *akjōr | *akjǭ | *akjār | *ēkai | *ēkizǭ | |
| 2S | *akiz | *akizar | *akjāz | *akjāzar | *ēkistai | *ēkizēz | *ak |
| 3S | *akid | *akidar | *akjād | *akjādar | *ēkid | *ēkizēd | *akjô |
| 1P | *akjamaz | *akiminai | *akjāmaz | *akjāminai | *ēkamaz | *ēkizēmaz | |
| 2P | *akidiz | *akjādiz | *ēkistiz | *ēkizēþiz | *akid | ||
| 3P | *akjand | *akjānd | *akjēri | *akizēnd | *akjanþô | ||
Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahizi "to do, make"
| Infinitive | *dahizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *daginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *dahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *dahjō | *dahjōr | *dahjǭ | *dahjār | *dēhai | *dēhizǭ | |
| 2S | *dahiz | *dahizar | *dahjāz | *dagjāzar | *dēgistai | *dēhizēz | *dah |
| 3S | *dahid | *dahidar | *dahjād | *dagjādar | *dēhid | *dēhizēd | *dahjô |
| 1P | *dahjamaz | *dagiminai | *dagjāmaz | *dagjāminai | *dēhamaz | *dēgizēmaz | |
| 2P | *dahidiz | *dagjādiz | *dēgistiz | *dēgizēþiz | *dahid | ||
| 3P | *dahjand | *dahjānd | *dagjēri | *dagizēnd | *dagjanþô | ||
Example: *þragizi (class 6) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *þragizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *þraginþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *þrahtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *þragō | *þragōr | *þragǭ | *þragār | *þrahsai | *þrahsizǭ | |
| 2S | *þragiz | *þragizar | *þragāz | *þragāzar | *þrahsistai | *þrahsizēz | *þrag |
| 3S | *þragid | *þragidar | *þragād | *þragādar | *þrahsid | *þrahsizēd | *þragô |
| 1P | *þragamaz | *þragiminai | *þragāmaz | *þragāminai | *þrahsamaz | *þrahsizēmaz | |
| 2P | *þragidiz | *þragādiz | *þrahsistiz | *þrahsizēþiz | *þragid | ||
| 3P | *þragand | *þragānd | *þrahsēri | *þrahsizēnd | *þraganþô | ||
Example: *hanizi (class 7) "to sing"
| Infinitive | *hanizi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *haninþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *hanþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *hanō | *hanōr | *hanǭ | *hanār | *hehanai | *heganizǭ | |
| 2S | *haniz | *hanizar | *hanāz | *hanāzar | *heganistai | *heganizēz | *han |
| 3S | *hanid | *hanidar | *hanād | *hanādar | *hehanid | *heganizēd | *hanô |
| 1P | *hanamaz | *haniminai | *hanāmaz | *hanāminai | *heganamaz | *heganizēmaz | |
| 2P | *hanidiz | *hanādiz | *heganistiz | *heganizēþiz | *hanid | ||
| 3P | *hanand | *hanānd | *heganēri | *heganizēnd | *hananþô | ||
Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīzi "to stuff"
| Infinitive | *bargīzi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *bargīnþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *barhtaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *barhijō | *barhijōr | *barhijǭ | *barhijār | *bebarhai | *bebargīsǭ | |
| 2S | *barhīz | *bargīzar | *barhijāz | *bargijāzar | *bebargīstai | *bebargīsēz | *barh |
| 3S | *barhīd | *bargīdar | *barhijād | *bargijādar | *bebarhīd | *bebargīsēd | *barhijô |
| 1P | *bargijamaz | *bargīminai | *bargijāmaz | *bargijāminai | *bebarhamaz | *bebargīzēmaz | |
| 2P | *bargīþiz | *bargijādiz | *bebargīstiz | *bebargīzēþiz | *bargīþ | ||
| 3P | *barhijand | *barhijānd | *bargijēri | *bargīzēnd | *bargijanþô | ||
Example: *stêsi (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"
| Infinitive | *stêsi | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *stênþs | ||||||
| Present participle | *staþaz | ||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||
| Active | Passive | Active | Passive | Active | Active | Active | |
| 1S | *stêō | *stêōr | *stêǭ | *stêār | *steþai | *stiþizǭ | |
| 2S | *stêz | *stêsar | *stêāz | *stêāsar | *stidistai | *stiþizēz | *stê |
| 3S | *stêd | *stêþar | *stêād | *stêāþar | *stiþid | *stiþizēd | *stêô |
| 1P | *stêmaz | *stêminai | *stêāmaz | *stêāminai | *steþamaz | *stidizēmaz | |
| 2P | *stêþiz | *stêāþiz | *stidistiz | *stidizēþiz | *stêd | ||
| 3P | *stênd | *stêānd | *stedēri | *stidizēnd | *stênþô | ||
Weak verbs
Weak verbs do not change their stem, and they take the following endings in the past indicative: Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings:
| 1S | 2S | 3S | 1P | 2P | 3P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -bǭ | -bōz | -bōd | -bōmaz | -bōþiz | -bōnd |
The -b- is usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depends on the weak verb class.
The past subjunctive endings are also added to the present stem. A connector vowel is also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
Class 1
Class 1 weak verbs conjugate similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
The past indicative has a connector vowel -(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle have a connector vowel -i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes follow Siever's law.
Class 2
Class 2 weak verbs have the following characteristics:
- The present stem ends in -ō-, which contracts with long vowels to -ô- and with long nasal vowels to -ǫ̂. Expected short vowels are dropped after -ō.
- The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle is -ō-, as in the present stem.
Class 3
There are two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
The first subclass is conjugated similarly to class 2 weak verbs, but with -ē- instead of -ō- and with no contractions with long vowels. The past participle has the connector vowel -a-.
The second subclass is conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive are conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel -ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle has the connector vowel -i-.
Class 4
Class 4 weak verbs do not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation follows that of non-j-stem strong verbs.
The past indicative has a connector vowel -a-, and the past subjunctive has a connector vowel -i-. The past participle has no connector vowel.
Preterite-present verbs
Preterite-present verbs are verbs whose present tenses conjugate as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs have weak pasts.
For example:
- *minizi "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *minabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
- *ōtizi "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōssaz "hated"
- *(ga)knōsi "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
- *(ga)swidizi "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swēssaz "accustomed"
The verb "to be"
The verb "to be" has two stems *(i)s- and *bu/bū-. They can be treated as two separate verbs that share past indicative and imperative forms.
| Infinitive | *issi | *būizi | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present participle | *sinþs | *būinþs | |||||||
| Past participle | — | *būadaz | |||||||
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||||||
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Indicative | Subjunctive | ||||||
| *issi | *būizi 1 | *būizi 2 | *issi | *būizi | *būizi | *issi | *būizi | ||
| 1S | *izą | *būō | *buzą | *sijǭ | *buzǭ | *bebūai | *issǭ | *bebūzǭ | |
| 2S | *iz | *būiz | *buz | *sijēz | *buzāz | *bebūistai | *issēz | *bebūzēz | *bū |
| 3S | *ist | *būid | *bust | *sijēd | *buzād | *bebūid | *issēd | *bebūzēd | |
| 1P | *samaz | *būamaz | *buzamaz | *sijēmaz | *buzāmaz | *bebūamaz | *issēmaz | *bebūzēmaz | |
| 2P | *istiz | *būidiz | *bustiz | *sijēþiz | *buzāþiz | *bebūistiz | *issēþiz | *bebūzēþiz | *būid |
| 3P | *sind | *būind | *buzind | *sijēnd | *buzānd | *bebūēri | *issēnd | *bebūzēnd | |